The Pilgrim

The Quarterly Bulletin of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Editor: Rev. A.J. Appasamy, M. A, (Harvard) Ph.D. (Oxon.)

MANORAMA, PALAMCOTTAH

The Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Patron: The Metropolitan of India, Calcutta

President: Bishop BRENTON T. BADLEY, Delhi.

Vice-Presidents: Dr. A.J. APPASAMY, Palamcottah. Rev. G.H.C. ANGUS, Principal, Serampore College.

Secretary: Rev. H.H. PRESLER, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur.

Convener, Benares Institute: Rev. R.C. DAS, Benares United City Mission, Ramkatora, Benares Cantonment.

Treasurer: Rev. S.R. HOLT, Benares United City Mission, Ramkatora, Benares Cantonment.

Committee: Mr. PAUL DAS, Dr. C.H. RICE, Rev. M. MOSES.

Invitation to Membership

The Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism has the following purposes:

1. To create and maintain adequate interest in the study of Hinduism by Christians.
2. To carry on this study in a sympathetic, constructive, and critical way for the purpose of effective evangelism.
3. To achieve the above objects in co-operation with church and mission bodies.

The activities of this society are:

1. To encourage the organisation of a permanent School of Hinduism.
2. To conduct in Benares (and if possible in a South Indian centre) an Institute of Hinduism stressing its popular aspects.
3. To discover scholars of Hinduism with teaching and literary abilities,
4. To foster the publication of papers and books bearing on Hinduism, its relation to Christianity, and work among Hindus.

Membership is open to individuals, institutions and societies who are in sympathy with the above objects. Individuals will pay a minimum annual subscription of Rs. 2/-, and institutions and societies a minimum annual subscription of Rs. 25/-. Every member will receive The Pilgrim_ regularly.

Membership fees and gifts may be sent to Rev. S, R. Holt, Benares United City Mission, Ramkatora, Benares, U.P.

Correspondence regarding the Society may be directed to Rev. Henry H. Presler, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur, C. P.

The Religion of Gandhijii

BY THE EDITOR

An important book on this subject has just been published. It is entitled Christian Missions: Their Place in India by M.K. Gandhi (Navajivan Press, Ahmedabad - Price Rs. 2). This book contains all the important utterances of Gandhijii on Christianity and missionary work in India during the last twenty years, his articles on the same subject in Young India and Harijan, the relevant chapters in his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, and reports of his interviews with Dr. John R. Mott, Dr. Kagawa and several others. For all those who are interested in the study of modern Hinduism, this volume is of great significance. It gives the views of Mahatma Gandhi on many of the spiritual problems and ideals of present day India.

On one fundamental matter there is real cleavage of thought between Gandhijii and Christians. Gandhijii holds that all religions are equally true and that no conversions should take place from one religion to another. This position is expressed again and again with all the vigour and clearness which are characteristic of Gandhijii. On this essential question Christians cannot agree, with him. The position which he holds is an extreme one. He is not right in believing that all conversions are inspired by financial or other unworthy motives. All of us have come across genuine instances of seekers after truth who, after a profound spiritual struggle and in spite of continued persecution by friends and relations, have been baptised and to the end of their days regarded this change of religion as the greatest event of their lives. My father was a convert from Hinduism. He constantly spoke of the very careful and prolonged enquiries he made about the Christian religion and of its value compared with the religion of his forefathers. It was after much searching of heart that he decided to join the Christian Church and faced the troubles and difficulties which were created by his own parents and others in his immediate family circle. To the end of his days he looked back upon this event as the most important step in his life. There are instances of innumerable other converts whose experience is similar to my father’s. Gandhijii’s strong views on this subject point out the need for the utmost care in the baptism and instruction of Christian converts. It is sadly true that often in order to swell numbers large groups of people are taken over into the Christian Church without much care or instruction. Even among Christian leaders there is sharply divided opinion about the value of mass movements. It is now generally agreed that without the greatest care in baptism and the fullest provision for instruction, mass movements are more a menace than a blessing to the Christian Church in India. The vigorous protests of Gandhijii ought to make all Christian leaders in India exercise the utmost care in baptising and instructing new converts. This, of course, will not satisfy Gandhijii. He wants all change of religion to stop completely. On this essential point Gandhijii and Christians must agree to differ. There seems to be no other alternative.

The book before us gives ample evidence of the eagerness which many Christian leaders show to learn from Gandhijii and to work for some of the lofty ideals for which he stands. This is a legitimate desire. No one has done more for India today than Gandhijii. During the last twenty years we have witnessed a wonderful transformation in the life of the country-a disciplined struggle for independence, the readiness of people to suffer and sacrifice in the service of India, the advance of women as leaders in every sphere of thought and action, the recognition of the importance of rural reconstruction and experiments in adjusting education to Indian conditions. Most of these can be traced directly to Gandhijii’s vision and sacrifice. It is therefore well worthwhile investigating carefully the roots of his religious life.

The Study of Hinduism: Gandhijii frequently stresses the need for a careful and a sympathetic study of Hinduism. He was asked: ‘What is the place of Christian missions in the new India that is being built up today? What can they do to help in this great task?’ ‘To show appreciation of what India is and is doing’, replied Gandhijii. ‘Up till now they have come as teachers and preachers with queer notions about India and India’s great religions. We have been described as a nation of superstitious heathen, knowing nothing, denying God. We are a brood of Satan as Murdoch would say. Did not Bishop Heber in his well-known hymn “From Greenland’s icy mountains” describe India as a country where “every prospect pleases and only man is vile”? To me this is a negation of the spirit of Christ’ (p. 288).

The Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism has realised the need for an understanding of Hinduism in its many aspects, both practical and theoretical. It is certainly necessary that all Christians in India should have a working knowledge of Hinduism and that some of us at least should make a prolonged and deep study of it.

Why Gandhijii remains a Hindu: In an answer to a question from an American correspondent, Gandhijii explains his reasons for remaining a Hindu. This paragraph may be quoted here in full. It sums up briefly the essential beliefs of Gandhijii, many of which are discussed at great length in the course of the book. Believing as I do in the influence of heredity, being born in a Hindu family, I have remained a Hindu. I should reject it, if I found it inconsistent with, my „moral sense or my spiritual growth. On examination, I have found it to be the most tolerant of all religions known to me. Its freedom from dogma makes a forcible appeal to me in as much as it gives the votary the largest scope for self-expression. Not being an exclusive religion, it enables the followers of that faith not merely to respect all the other religions, but it also enables them to admire and assimilate whatever may be good in the other faiths. Non-violence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism. (I do not read Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism). Hinduism believes in the oneness not of merely all human life but in the oneness of all that lives. Its worship of the cow is, in my opinion, its unique contribution to the evolution of humanitarianism. It is a practical application in the oneness and, therefore, sacredness of all life. The great belief in transmigration is a direct consequence once of that belief. Finally, the discovery of the law of Varnashrama is a magnificent result of the ceaseless search for truth. (p. 36).

Religious tolerance: Most Hindus regard religious tolerance as a characteristic value of their religion. This is how Gandhijii explains the idea of religious tolerance as found in Hinduism: ‘Tolerance may imply a gratuitous assumption of the inferiority of other faiths to one’s own, whereas ahimsa teaches us to entertain the same respect for the religious faiths of others as we accord to our own, thus admitting the imperfection of the latter. This admission will be readily made by a seeker of Truth, who follows the law of Love. If we had attained the full vision of Truth, we would no longer be mere seekers, but would have become one with God, for Truth is God. But being only seekers, we prosecute our quest, and are conscious of our imperfection. And if we are imperfect ourselves, religion as conceived by us must also be imperfect. We have not realised religion in its perfection, even as we have not realised God. Religion of our, conception, being thus imperfect, is always subject to a process of evolution and re-interpretation. Progress towards Truth, towards God, is possible only because of such evolution. Reverence for other faiths need not blind us to their faults. We must be keenly alive to the defects of our own faith also, yet not leave it on that account, but try to overcome those defects. Looking at all religions with an equal eye, we would not only not hesitate, but would think it is our duty, to blend into our faith every acceptable feature of other faiths.’ (P.3).

Non-violence: As is - well-known, Gandhijii has frequently explained his doctrine of - Non-violence. Here is a characteristic exposition. A group of young missionaries returning to America from the Ewing Christian College and the Agricultural Institute, Allahabad, paid Gandhijii a visit and asked him ‘What is India’s real message to the world?’ ‘Non-violence’, replied Gandhijii. ‘India is saturated with that spirit. It has not demonstrated it to the extent that you can go to America as living witnesses of that spirit. But you can truthfully say that India is making a desperate effort to live up to that great ideal. If there is not this message, there is no other message that India can give. Say what you may, the fact stands out that here you have a whole subcontinent that has decided for itself that there is no freedom for it except through Non-violence. No other country has made that attempt even. I have not been able to influence other people even to the extent of believing that - Non-violence is worth trying. There is, of course, a growing body of European opinion that has begun to appreciate the possibilities of the weapon of Non-violence. But I. want the sympathy of the whole world for India if she can get it while she is making this unique experiment.’ (P 289).

Oneness of Life: Gandhi’s account in his autobiography of a visit to a friend’s family in South Africa (reprinted in this book) will explain what he means by Oneness of Life ’My hostess was a good and simple woman but somewhat narrow-minded. We always, discussed religious subjects. I was then reading Arnold’s Light of Asia. Once we began to compare the life of Jesus with that of Buddha. “Look at Gautama’s compassion”, said I. “It was not confined to mankind. It was extended to all living beings. Does not one’s heart overflow with love to think of the lamb joyously perched on his shoulders? One fails to notice this love for all living beings in the life of Jesus”. The comparison pained the good lady. I could understand her feelings. I cut the matter short, and we went to the dining room. Her son, a cherub aged scarcely five, was also with us. I am happiest when in the midst of children, and this youngster and I had long been friends. I spoke derisively of the piece of meat on his plate and in high praise of the apple on mine. The innocent boy was carried away and joined in my praise of the fruit.

But the mother? She was dismayed, I was warned. I checked myself and changed the subject. The following week I visited the family as usual, but not without trepidation. I did not see that I should stop going there. I did not think it proper either. But the good lady made my way easy. “Mr. Gandhi”, she said, “please don’t take it ill if I feel obliged to tell you that my boy is none the better for your company. Every day he hesitates to eat meat and asks for fruit, reminding me of your argument. This is too much. If he gives up meat, he is bound to get weak, if not How could I bear it?” Your discussions should henceforth be only with us elders. They are sure to react badly on children.’

Mrs.-; “I replied,” I am sorry. I can understand your feelings as a parent, for I too have children. We can very easily end this unpleasant state of things. What I eat and omit to eat is bound to have a greater effect on the child than what I say. The best way, therefore, is for me to stop these visits. That certainly need not affect our friendship”.

“I thank you,” she said with evident relief. (pp. 29, 30)

Varnashrama Dharma: A distinguished American clergyman Dr. Crane, called on Gandhi and asked him among other questions, ‘In your Hinduism do you basically include the caste system?’ The conversation which followed the question sheds light on Gandhijii’s conception of Varnashrama Dharma.

Gandhijii said: ‘I do not. Hinduism does not believe in caste. I would obliterate it at once. But I believe in Varnashrama which is the law of life. I believe that some people are born to teach and some to defend and some to engage in trade and agriculture and some to do manual labour, so much so that these occupations become hereditary. The law of Varna is nothing but the law of conservation of energy. Why should my son not be a scavenger if I am one?’

‘Indeed? Do you go so far?’

‘I do, because I hold a scavenger’s profession in no way inferior to a clergyman’s’.

‘I grant that, but should Lincoln have been a wood-chopper rather than President of the U.S.A.?’

‘But why should not a wood cutter be a President of the United States? Gladstone used to chop wood.’

‘But he did not accept it as his calling.’

’He would not have been worse off if he had done so. What I mean is, one born as a scavenger must earn his livelihood by being a scavenger, and then do whatever else he likes. For a scavenger is as worthy of hire as a lawyer or your President. That, according to me is Hinduism. There is no better communism on earth, and I have illustrated it with one verse from the Upanishads which means, God pervades all-animate and inanimate. Therefore, renounce all and dedicate it to God and then live. The right of living is thus derived from renunciation. It does not say, “When all do their part of the work I too will do it.” It says, “Don’t bother about others, do your job first and leave the rest to Him”.

The law of Varna is the antithesis of the competition which kills’. (P.p. 175, 176)

The Religious Experience of Gandhijii: So far we have been considering the main religious beliefs of Gandhijii; we may now turn to a consideration of his vital religious experiences, which he describes with his usual frankness and clearness.

1. The Value of Silence: In the course of a conversation with Dr. John R. Mott, Gandhijii said: ‘Nowadays into silence at prayer time every evening and break it for visitors at 2 o’clock. I broke it today when you came. It has now become both a physical and spiritual necessity for me. Originally it was taken to relieve the sense of pressure. Then I wanted time for writing. After, however, I had practised it for some time I saw the spiritual value of it. It suddenly flashed across my mind that that was the time when I could best hold communion with God?’ (p. 261)

2. Guidance from God: ‘One experience stands quite distinctly in my memory. It relates to my twenty-one-day fast for the removal of untouchability. I had gone to sleep the night before without the slightest idea of having to declare a fast the next morning. At about 12 o’clock in the night something wakes me up suddenly, and a voice-within or without, I cannot say whispers, “Thou must go on a fast.” “How many days?” I ask. The voice again says, “Twenty-one days” “When does it begin?” I ask. The voice says, “You begin tomorrow.” I went quietly off to sleep after making the decision. I did not tell anything to my companions until after the morning prayer. I placed into their hands a slip of paper announcing that my decision was irrevocable. Well, the doctors thought I would not survive the fast. But something within me said that I would and that I must go forward. That kind of experience has never in my life happened before or after that date’ (p. 260)

3. The Enjoyment of Peace: ‘Is it not super-arrogation to assume that you alone possess the key to spiritual joy and peace, and that an adherent of a different faith cannot get the same in equal measure from a study of his scriptures? I enjoy a peace and equanimity of spirit which has excited the envy of many Christian friends. I have got it principally through the Gita’ (p. 292)

4. The Meaning of Austerities: ’Jesus atoned for the sins of those who accepted His teachings by being an infallible example to them. But the example was worth nothing to those who never troubled to change their lives. A regenerate outgrows the original taint even as purified gold outgrows the original alloy.

I have made the frankest admission of my many sins. But I do not carry their burden on my shoulders. If I am journeying Godward, as I feel I am, it is safe with me. For I feel the warmth of the sunshine of His presence. My austerities, fasting and prayers are, I know, of no value if I rely upon them for reforming me. But they have an inestimable value if they represent, as I hope they do, the yearning of a soul striving to lay his weary head in the lap of his Maker.’ (p. 61)

1. The Worship of God as Truth: ‘I do not regard God as a person,’ said Gandhijii on one occasion. ‘Truth for me is God, and God’s Law and God are not different things or facts, in the sense that an earthly king and his law are different. Because God is an Idea, Law Himself. Therefore, it is impossible to conceive God as breaking the Law. He therefore does not rule our actions and withdraw Himself. When we say He rules our actions, we are simply using human language, and we try to limit Him. Otherwise, He and His law abide everywhere and govern everything. Therefore, I do not think that He answers in every detail every request of ours, but there is no doubt that He rules our action, and I literally believe that not a blade of grass grows or moves without His will. The free will we enjoy is less than that of a passenger on a crowded deck.’

‘Do you feel a sense of freedom in your communion with God?’

‘I do not feel cramped as I would on a boat full of passengers. Although I know that my freedom is less than that of a passenger. I appreciate that freedom as I have imbibed through and through the central teaching of the Gita that man is the maker of his own destiny in the sense that he has freedom, of choice as to the manner in which he uses that freedom. But he is no controller of results. The moment he thinks he is, he comes to grief.’ (pp. 279, 280).

Live the Gospel: This book gives much food for thought to all Christian workers among educated Hindus. It shows the many peculiar difficulties which they experience in understanding the Christian religion and suggests fruitful lines of approach. Already this article is, getting long and these points cannot be taken up here. But in conclusion it is necessary to say that constantly Mahatma Gandhi insists upon Christians really living the Christian life and points out that it is the most effective way of preaching the Gospel in India. This, of course, is a well-known truth. We need to lay it to our hearts deeply and to try our best to walk in the steps of Jesus. To live the gospel is the most effective way-most effective in the beginning, in the middle and in the end. Preaching jars on me and makes no appeal to me and. I get suspicious of missionaries who preach. But I love those who never preach but live the life according to their lights. Their lives are silent, yet most effective testimonies. Therefore, I cannot say what to preach, but I can say that a life of service and uttermost simplicity is the best preaching. If, therefore, you go on serving people and ask them also to serve, they would understand. But you quote instead John 3:16 and ask them to believe it. That has no appeal to me, and I am sure people will not understand it. Where there has been acceptance of the gospel through preaching, my complaint is that there has been some motive. (p. 230).

‘It is better to allow our lives to speak for us than our words. C.F. Andrews never preaches. He is incessantly doing his work. He finds enough work and stays where he finds it and takes no credit for bearing the Cross. I have the honour to know hundreds of honest Christians, but I have not known one better than Andrews’ (p. 161).

‘Let your life speak to us, even as the rose needs no speech but simply spreads its perfume. Even the blind who do not see the rose perceive its fragrance.’ (p. 226).

Pandita Ramabai’s Testimony

In 1917 Pandita Ramabai printed for private circulation a Testimony. Most of our readers are not likely to have seen this pamphlet. We reproduce her witness to Christ in these striking words:

‘Sixteen years ago, a new leaf was turned in my life. Since then, I have come to know the Lord Jesus Christ as my personal Saviour, and have the joy of sweet communion with Him: my life is full of joy. “For the Lord Jehovah is my strength and my song; He also is become my Salvation.” Now I know what the Prophet means by saying “Therefore with joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation”. I can scarcely contain the joy and keep it to myself. I feel like the Samaritan woman who “left her waterpot, and went her way into the city, and saith to the men, Come, see a man, which told me all things that ever I did is not this the Christ?”’.

I feel I must tell my fellow-creatures what things the Lord Jesus has done for me, and I feel sure, as it was possible for Him to save such a great sinner as I am. He is quite able to save others. The only thing that must be done by me is to tell people of Him and of His love for sinners and His great power to save them.

My readers will not therefore find fault with me for making this subject so very personal. The heart-experiences of an individual are too sacred to be exposed to the public gaze. Why then should I give them to the public in this way? Because a “necessity is laid upon me; yea, woe is unto me, if I preach not the gospel” 1 Corinthians 9:16. I am bound to tell as many men and women as possible, that Christ Jesus came to save sinners like me. He has saved me, Praise the Lord! I know, “He is able, also to save them to the uttermost that come unto God by Him, seeing He ever liveth to make intercession for them” Hebrews 7:25.

God has given me a practical turn of mind. I want to find out the truth about everything including religion, by experiment. I experimented on the religion in which I was born, I did not leave a stone unturned, as it were, as far as I knew; not only in the way of studying books, but of doing myself what the books prescribed. I have seen many others also doing the same thing. I saw them doing everything that was commanded them. The sad end was that I found that they were not saved by it, nor was I, It was a dire spiritual necessity that drove me to seek help from other sources. I had to give up all pride of our ancestral religion being old which is preventing many of my country-people from finding Christ, although you know well, that they have not got the joy of salvation. They can never have it except in Christ.

There are, I know, many hungry souls and may be some of them might be helped by reading this account. I would urge upon such brothers and sisters to make haste and come forward, and accept-the great love of God expressed in Christ Jesus and not to neglect “so great salvation,” which God gives freely. Hebrews 2:1-3.

“Neither is there salvation in any other for there is none other name under heaven given among men, whereby we must be saved.” Acts 4:12.

Do not therefore lose time through pride or because of any other difficulty. The caste may put you out, your near and dear ones will perhaps reject you and persecute you, you may very likely lose your temporal greatness and riches; but never mind; the great salvation which you will get in Christ by believing on Him, and confessing Him before men, is worth all the great sacrifices you can possibly make. Yes, more than that, for all riches; and all the gain, and all the joys of the world, do not begin to compare with the JOY OF SALVATION”.

The Indus Civilisation

By the late Prof. J.N. RAWSON, M.A.

Sir John Marshall in the preface to his Mahenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation (1931), writes as follows: “Hitherto it has commonly been supposed that the pre-Aryan peoples of India were on an altogether lower plane of civilisation than their Aryan conquerors, - a race so degraded they were commonly known as dasas or slaves. The picture of them gleaned from the hymns of the Rig Veda was that of black skinned, flat-nosed barbarians, as different from the fair Aryans in physical aspect as they were in speech and religion, though at the same time it was evident that they must have been rich in cattle, good fighters, and possessed of many forts, in which they defended themselves against the invaders. These”forts” (puras) however, were explained by Vedic scholars as being no more than occasional places of refuge, simple earth-works, surrounded it may be by palisades or rough stone walls; for seeing that the Aryans themselves were in the village state and their society correspondingly primitive, it was deemed impossible that the older races of India, the contemptible outcaste dasas, could already have been living in well-built cities or fortresses, or in other respects attained a high state of culture. Mentally, physically, socially and religiously their inferiority was taken for granted, and little or no credit was given to them for the achievements of Indian Civilisation. Never for a moment was it imagined that five thousand years ago, before ever the Aryans were heard of, the Punjab and Sindh, if not other parts of India as well, were enjoying an advanced and singularly uniform civilisation of their own, *closely akin to but in some respects even superior to that of contemporary Mesopotamia and Egypt. Yet this is what the discoveries at Harappa and Mahenjo-Daro have now placed beyond question. They exhibit the Indus people of the fourth and third millennia B. C. in possession of a highly developed culture in which no shade of Indo-Aryan influence is found.”

With regard to the religion of the Indus Valley people the evidence is by no means so clear as one would wish.

1. There are no obvious temples though some of the large houses may have served as such.

2. There are no tombs. If one reflects how much of our knowledge of the religion of Mesopotamia and Egypt comes from tombs, one can see what a rich source of evidence we miss.

3. The best source of knowledge we have is the seal-amulets. But as yet the script has not been deciphered, so we can only try to make inference from the figures.

   Still, sufficient seems to be clear for us to conclude that the religion of the Indus Valley people contributed some of the most characteristic features to popular. Hinduism, - features which were formerly thought to be accretions or importations of a much later date.

   What are the chief characteristics of popular Hinduism which have practically no counterpart in Vedic and Brahmanic religion? They are:

   1. Goddess worship,
   2. Siva worship,
   3. Lingam worship,
   4. Tree worship,
   5. Animal worship.

4. Goddess worship. While statues, properly so-called are very few, many of small pottery figures have been found which almost certainly represent the Mother Goddess. These figures were probably kept in little shrines in each house, and in some cases the figure itself is shaped to have a lamp attached. Similar figures have been found in Mesopotamia and all the countries of the near East.

   It is noteworthy that though the Indus people were capable of artistic portraiture, there is no attempt at such in these figures. The face of the Goddess is either pinched in and bird-like or else flat and grotesque, with cavernous, skull-like eyes (like a death’s head) - possibly a prototype of Kali.

   Now in Vedic religion, though the consorts of the great gods such as Indrani are recognised, Goddess-worship practically plays no part. In modern Hinduism, on the other hand, Goddess worship (Durga, Kali, etc.) is the most important cult, at any rate as regards the popular religion of the greater part of India. The earliest reference in Sanskrit literature to the worship of Durga is in Mahabharata IV. where she is described as a goddess living in the Vindhya mountains, and it used to be thought that her worship was an importation into Hinduism from the religion of the wild mountain tribes. This is to some extent true since these tribes represent that section of the pre-Aryan inhabitants who were driven away into the wilder parts of the country and there preserved their independence. But the mass of the lower strata of the population in the plains also probably consists of conquered non-Aryans, and their religion has probably remained much the same since the earliest times. There has been, however, a double process of influence: their religion has been gradually Hinduised by contact with the thought of their conquerors and the religion of the conquering Aryans has also been gradually influenced by them, the Vedic religion being thus greatly modified. This influence is only seen in Sanskrit literature at a comparatively late period, but the process of infiltration has probably been going on from very early times.

5. Siva worship. Siva worship is one of the most popular cults in modern Hinduism. It has a certain parallel in the Vedic worship of Rudra, but (a) Rudra is only a minor deity in the Rig Veda, and (b) the Siva of Epic and later times differs in many ways from the Vedic storm-god. He is the great ascetic, and Yogin, though he is also the lord of the powers of reproduction, whose emblem is the lingam. He is also a mountain and forest god, the lord of animals (Pasupati).

   Now certain seal-amulets have been found depicting in a very striking way a rude male deity with horns and three (or four) faces, seated on a low stool with his heels together in a typical attitude of Yoga: On either side of the god are a pair of animals, - a tiger and an elephant and a rhinoceros and a buffalo, while below are two deer. This figure, Sir John Marshall considers, is clearly the prototype of the god Siva, depicted as Mahayogin and Pasupati. Another point is the three faces; the later Siva was often depicted with three, four or five faces and also three eyes. Further the two horns of the seals, together with the central crest, form a kind of trisula, an emblem of the later Siva. “It has always been suspected.” says Mr. Macky “that Siva was one of the oldest Indian gods - a supposition which is justified by this interpretation of the figure on the seal-amulets.”

6. Lingam Worship: Connected with Siva worship in modern India is the reverence paid to the lingam; Indeed, Siva is now more worshipped through this symbol than in any other way. Now it was formerly thought that this was a comparatively late importation into Hinduism, since it is quite alien to the Vedic religion. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar in his Vaisnavism and Saivism (p. 114) says that he could find no trace in Sanskrit literature of the Siva-lingam as an object of worship before the late Anusasanaparvan of the Mahabharata

(c. 300 A.D.) He considers that it was borrowed by the Indian Aryans from the aborigines of the sub-Himalayan forest region (Nisadas etc.) in post-Christian times. He notes, however, that there are at least two passages in the Rig Veda which almost certainly refer to phallus worship, though not by Aryans. Rig Veda vii. 2l.5, and x. 99.3, speak with abhorrence of the dasas, the darker skinned peoples whom the Aryans conquered, as Sisna devah - those whose god is the phallus. This corresponds with what we find at Mahenjo-daro. Quite a number of very realistic phalli have been found there, and it now seems quite clear that this element in popular Hindu worship, though originally quite as abhorrent to the Aryans as it is to present day European visitors to India, was not a late importation from certain savage tribes, but was present among the (Dravidian) mass of the population from the beginning, and from them gradually spread to the higher strata of the population.

7. Tree worship: Another thing that strikes a visitor to India as rather strange is the reverence paid to certain trees. Right in the midst of a main road, half blocking the traffic, stands a pipal tree which cannot possibly be cut down because it is too sacred. Now the Veda, though it is full of the feeling of reverence for the great forests, and though in the later Samhitus it speaks of trees as the abodes of gandharvas and apsarasas, has nothing corresponding to the tree worship of later popular Hinduism.

   Here again, however, it would appear that this worship goes back to pre-Vedic times. One seal shows a suppliant, supported by a human-faced bull, worshipping the spirit of a pipal tree, and another shows the pipal as a religious standard, springing from two heads of the unicorn or urus bull. There are representations also of trees, probably pipal, springing out of platforms such as are now built up round sacred trees.

8. Animal worship: On the cover of Marshall’s Mahenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation there is a figure, copied from one of the seals, of a Brahmani bull, which might almost have been photographed yesterday in Clive Street or Harrison Road, as, secure in its sacredness, it calmly blocks the traffic, disdainful of all the forces of the British Empire. Why not? Its own empire has lasted over four thousand years.

By far the greater number of Indus Valley seals represent animals. In Mahenjo-Daro, for example, there are figured no less than 318 seals representing the so-called unicorn or urus bull alone. Then come the bison (gaur), the Brahmani or humped bull, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the tiger, the gharial (alligator) and the buffalo. It seems likely the seals were used as amulets and regarded as having talismanic value, and the various animals were also probably, in various ways, regarded as sacred.

It is clear then that the popular religion of India (at least in the Indus Valley) in pre-Vedic times was in many ways similar to the popular religion today, - surely a very amazing discovery when we remember the long history and great changes in the religion of the upper and literate classes -it was an educated section of the population who professed the religion that we have described. But to know this we must await the deciphering of the script.

Printed at the Hilal Press, Tirunelveli 7-1941