The Pilgrim

The Quarterly Bulletin of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Volume	Date	Issue
13	October 1954	3

Editor: Rev. Dr. R.D. IMMANUEL

Now Available

From:

The North India Christian Tract Society, 18 Clive Road, Allahabad.

Copies of (Price Rs. 15):

The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama.
A New Translation by W.D.P. Hill.
Tulsidas’s Ramacharitra Manasa.

Editorial Notes

God, who commanded the light to shine out of darkness, hath shined in our hearts, to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ. II Corinth. 4:6.

India is praised for its spiritualism. Indians are proud, and justly too, of their great spiritual heritage. Our platform orators are never tired of speaking about the charm of the Rig Veda, the unique nature of the remorse of Ashoka over his victory in his war with Kalingas, of the two great epics, and a vast array of religious literature. But a heritage, however wonderful it might be, is something of the past. A golden age in the past is nothing but a whitewashed sepulchre, if that ancient heritage is not taken as a serious challenge to the present, to work out a more glorious future. “Time makes ancient good uncouth,” says the poet Lowell, “They must upward and still onward who would keep abreast of truth.”

One such cherished heritage is the tolerance of religious ideals other than one’s own. It has been stated that in India many different kinds of religion have existed and can exist. This is really something to be very proud of. However, this tolerance might be a masked form of grave intolerance. This comes to light when one examines the basic idea underlying the concept of religious tolerance. Our Neo-Hindu friends claim that all religions are alike and that none of them can claim superiority over the others. Forcing people to accept this dogma is nothing but religious tyranny. True religious freedom does not rest upon any dogma like “all religions are alike”. But it comes from the value of individuals as persons. This does not mean that one should accept as true what anyone else says - but it does affirm that every one has the right to examine truth as it is presented by others, and the right to cling to what he thinks best. The term brotherhood of religions is a sheer myth. That which exists or can exist is a brotherhood of men in which each individual tries to understand his brother’s point of view with sympathy and love and upholds his freedom and the freedom of every one else to follow his ideals.

The passing of the marriage act recently is a landmark of tremendous significance in the history of India. By its emphasis on the equality of sexes, by its respect for the rights of the individual to get divorces by its insistence on monogamy, as the basis for husband-wife relationship, the new act is bound to change the life in Hindu society. The change might be slow, but it is bound to come, and it will be for the better. It gives to individuals the right of choice. No doubt many mistakes will be made, and in the process several failures, and broken homes might result. But the risk of failure is the price we have to pay for success.

Prayer Section

The following prayer is taken from “POEMS By INDIAN WOMEN” (Association Press) Edited by Dr. M. Macnicol. The poem was written by Shrimati Hemantabala Dutt in Bengali and was translated by Miss Whitehouse.

Open Thou Thy Door of Mercy

    All my guilt of old, sin upon sin, put far, far away. Give,
    O Lord, give in my heart the melody of a new song.

    To stir to life my withered, unfeeling heart, near to death
    and poor, play thy melody on the bina, taking over a new tune.

    As in Nature thy sweetness overflows, so let thy compassion
    wake in my heart.

    In the midst of all things may thy loving face float before
    my eyes. May no rebel thought against thy wish ever wake in
    my heart.

    Day by day, before I set foot in life's forest, may I crave
    thy blessing and so advance, my Lord.

    Setting thy commands upon my head, may I with unfaltering
    care accomplish my every task in the remembrance of thy feet.

    Day by day, before I set foot in life's forest, may I crave
    thy bless and so advance, my Lord.

    Setting thy commands upon my head, may I with unfaltering
    care accomplish my every task in the remembrance of
    thy feet.

    Giving to thee the fruit of my task fulfilled, at the end of
    day may my wearied spirit and body find rest.

    Hurrying have I come from far away, knowing thee compassionate.
    A hundred hindrances there were to my coming.
    How many thorns fill the path to my goal. So, today, behold!
    My heart is wounded, my life is dark. Hurrying have I come
    from far away, knowing thee compassionate.

    Open thou thy door of mercy. My raft of life drifts on the
    boundless ocean. Fearlessness art thou, and ever powerful.
    Nought have I, I am weak and poor. My heart is thirsting
    for thy lotus feet. The day is now far spent. Open thou thy
    door of mercy. My raft of life drifts on the boundless ocean.

Helping Foreigners to Understand Hinduism

By DR. H.H. PRESLER

Landour Language School Lectures

Hinduism

In the two previous lectures I have begun with illustrations from contemporary Hinduism and ended with theory. Today it is necessary to do the opposite; to begin with theory and to end with illustrations.

The subject today is, HINDU RITUALS, in the human life cycle. By this title let us understand those rituals required to forward a man through life, such as his initiation, his marriage, his preparation for death, and so on. In Hinduism there are sixteen such rituals.

We foreigners are accustomed to getting along with fewer rituals say, four or five. We have graduation exercises, various initiations into masonic orders, baptism, marriage and death ceremonies, each of which helps us to change our status. But for most of our lives we have to get along without such rituals. Not so the Hindus; to them nearly every major change of role is channelled through a religious ritual.

The best theoretical analysis of those rituals occurring in the human life cycle, seems to me to be that of the French scholar GENNEP. His famous essay is entitled, LES RITES DU PASSAGE, which may be translated, Rites of Passage, or rituals of passage. The Frenchman begins by saying that there are two kinds of passages open to men: first, there is passage from one spot on the earth to another spot, called passage horizontally. Second, there is passage through life or through time, called vertical passage. For clarity, I shall begin with the kind of passage with which we are not immediately concerned, namely, horizontal passage.

For our example, let us take the case of a secluded Indian village woman of high caste. Normally she rarely leaves her courtyard, and goes into the village itself only under extraordinary circumstances, and then with a veil hiding her face. When family circumstances make it unexpectedly necessary for her to visit the neighbouring village, two miles to the West, her heart beats faster with alarm. About a week is required to prepare the clothing, finances and gifts for the journey, so that she slowly gets used to the idea and moves about confidently. When the day of departure arrives there are minor rituals, such as bathing, dressing in the proper clothing, donning the appropriate jewellery, and the veil. The priest arrives, summoned by her orthodox husband, and offers the homa sacrifice with appropriate Sanskrit ritual. Her dear ones give her the appropriate gestures or caresses of farewell, and tears follow. But she carries herself proudly through the village, and with confidence right up to the boundary shrine, which in our part of the country is likely to be that of Harodolbaaba. She pauses to do her pranams to Hardol and to offer a floral necklace. All that she has experienced up until now in connection with this journey may be, called PREPARATION.

Now she ventures westward bravely, into a strange field, following a path unknown to her. She looks around to be sure her retainers are following. They encourage her to go forward, and she does. But the path winds in and out among the trees, until she spies a neem tree. She knows that the neem contains a goddess, but which one she does not know. It makes her uneasy to approach an unknown forest deity. Likewise, there are springs of water to be crossed, each of which contains spirits, some good and some evil. The Unseen, the Unusual, the Unique increase her nervousness. The longer she presses forward the more she regrets the circumstances that ever made her embark on this dangerous journey. She had been passing people of her own village, who were en route to the fields. But now she has left them all, and finds herself in a kind of No Man’s Land. Her people are not here, nor are the dreaded strangers. She does not know what the fates hold in store for her at each step of the way. This is called the PLACE OF TRANSITION.

Then the fields of the neighbouring village appear. She glances fearfully at the faces of strangers, all of whom seem to be scowling and malevolent. When their number increases, when the woods appear to be swarming with foreigners, her courage fails completely. She sits down on the ground, unable to proceed. Her servants gather around her for they are equally nonplussed. The distant roofs of the foreign huts look forbidding. She wants to return but circumstances prevent. At this forlorn juncture she sees a well-dressed woman with a like set of retainers coming out of the village. The closer, the stranger comes, the more evident is her high caste. She approaches with a pleasant smile, and the traveller suspects the oncoming figure to be a human being and not a churailin (female evil spirit). Behold, she stops a few feet off and expresses the customary courtesies, extends a small gift, and steps back respectfully The stranger beckons for a mala or floral necklace, and approaches as if to garland the traveller, who cautiously submits. Then the whole party proceeds slowly to the outpost god of the foreign village. A priest is waiting there. The party pauses and sits. Again the homa sacrifice is performed, after which the traveller is expected to pay her respects. She does, so and makes an offering. The priest says, that the mero goddess of the strange village is pleased with her pranams. She takes a deep breath, begins to smile herself. Behold, she is accepted; everything is alright, will be alright. Safety is assured. She suddenly realises that she has become a citizen of a different village. She has been incorporated into a new social group, with a welcome. They are defining her as friend. For the first time in her life, she says to herself, “Now I am a friend of these foreigners.” This is the STAGE OF INCORPORATION. She draws herself to her full height and moves confidently forward.

In the same way, you and I set out for one another’s houses. We go through the routine of dressing, and saying goodbye to our dear ones, not realising that we are conforming to what is proper. The hat must not be put on in the house, the necktie must not hang down over the collar button; it is all a ritual of preparation.

True, our journey is not beset with sprites and demons, but all the same, some uncertainty attaches to it. We are not sure whom to speak to in the street. We do not know whether the strangers are friendly or unfriendly. We are in a kind of No-Man’s Land, in a period of strain and transition.

When we arrive at each other’s house, we stop, perhaps at the gate, or on the verandah, and wonder whether to call out. We look furtively here and there, waiting for the host to come out and invite us to enter. He does come out, says the proper things, makes the right gestures. Even then we stand up, waiting for him to tell us to sit down. We wait to be incorporated into a house and home not our own. Only after the proper ritual is gone through, do we breathe easily again, that is, after the Rite of Incorporation.

So much for horizontal passage.

GENNEP goes on to say that we have approximately the same experiences in passing vertically through time. Thus, as long as I was a “prep” in my fraternity, the going was smooth. I had to learn the history of organisation, its rules and responsibilities. I waited on the full members and endured their hazing. I became used to it. That ritual of preparation lasted for about seven months.

But when the Week of Hazing came, I was in No Man’s Land, not knowing what to expect. At any hour of day or night the full members delighted in making life uncertain for us. They forced us to wear unusual clothing, sent us into cemeteries at midnight, and fed us uncomfortable food. They succeeded in terrifying us, during the week of transition.

Then came Saturday with its all-night vigil. The full members changed from enemies to friends. The candles burned on the altar. We knelt and spoke the vows. And then, there were our fraternity brothers, pumping our hands, pounding us on the back; the church bells rang out, and everything was glorious. We were incorporated.

Similar is the experience of us foreigners at marriage. Before this rite of passage, we are single men. The community has laid down certain rules for our conduct. All our lives we have obeyed them. The problem of the community now is to get us transferred out of one set of rules into another set of rules, and to do it properly. We must be redefined in the eyes of society and in our own eyes. We must be made to feel new expectations bearing upon us. We must be incorporated into the company of the Already Married. The period of transition in our society is so full of uncertainties and vagaries that we assign a Best Man to the bridegroom for the purpose of taking care of that frightened individual, and to the bride we assign a number of attendants lest she fall in a faint.

So with the rites of passage in our lives. They are intended to prepare us, to conduct us safely through a dangerous period of transition, and to incorporate us into a different social pattern with different statuses and expectations. Everything must be done correctly and in order, at the right times and in the right place. The two goals are these: first, that the community shall accept and redefine our status; second, that we shall redefine ourselves to ourselves and inwardly accept the new role.

In orthodox Hinduism there are sixteen occasions in the life cycle of an individual when a rite of passage is necessary. There are sixteen points in a man’s journey through time when he must be prepared for what follows, conducted safely through the transitory period of uncertainty, and incorporated into a new and broader social pattern. As far as my information goes, these sixteen are prevalent throughout India among Hindus, but there are variations as to their content. There are even variations as to which rituals are included within the sixteen. For instance, some castes have both a death ceremony and a nine-day ceremony after death. Other castes have only the death ceremony and add another ceremony during pregnancy. But in the main, these sixteen rituals are standard, and you will see them performed from time to time.

I have decided to give you as the illustration, the Sixteen Rites or Sacraments of the Arya Samaj. One reason for choosing this sect is that this samaj claims to express the true content of the Vedas. The other reason is that until recently, there was no presentation of the Arya rituals in English. One of the students in the Department of Organised Research has translated them into our mother tongue, and we have published the same in one of our Research Monographs.¹ What follows are therefore somewhat of a discovery.

The Sixteen Rites of Passage of the Arya Samaj, are:

Rite intended to procure conception.
Rite to perform in the third month of conception.
Rite to be performed in the sixth or eighth month of conception.
Birthrite.
Rite for naming the child.
Rite for taking the child out of the house for the first time.
Rite for giving solid food to the child for the first time.
Rite for the first tonsure.
Rite for piercing the ear.
Rite for initiation at puberty.
Rite for entrance into Vedic studies.
Rite for graduation from Vedic studies.
Marriage rite.
Rite for retiring from family life.
Rite for abandoning the world in old age.
Obsequies, or the funeral rite.

The Aryas claim (and there are few grounds for doubting it) that all these rites are mentioned in the Vedas and were carried out, in Vedic times, that, is, nearly four thousand years ago. These rites are for twice-born Hindus (the three upper castes).

Children are given prominence. There are three rites to be performed before birth, six rites before the age of two, and two in boyhood. Females are not mentioned after childhood. Initiation and later rites are not meant for women.

Every ritual should be preceded by congregational worship, which is standardised. Its purpose is to link every Preparation, Transition and Incorporation, with religion and with eternity. The fact that the worship is congregational reminds us of the new social pattern into which the novitiate is to be conducted. The congregation is present to define the new expectations, to sanction the entrance of the candidate, to welcome him.

The preliminary congregational worship is very impressive, especially when conducted in the forest at night, as in ancient times. The standard preliminary includes worship, praise and prayers to God. This is followed by the homa sacrifice of grains and ghee in fire, requiring four priests. The third part is for special offerings, which are quite extensive, including musk, saffron, aloes, ghee, milk, pulses, rice, wheat, sweets, and medicinal herbs. The standard preliminary concludes with devotional hymns and the prayer for peace. The foregoing sets the atmosphere for what follows, and is a most sobering influence on the novitiate. He realises that the business at hand is extraordinarily serious. The gravity of his elders, and the Sanskrit utterances of the priests make him feel that even the gods are watching him with caution.

After an intermission, one of the sixteen rites of passage follows. The shortest one is the rite for piercing the ear, and lasts fifteen minutes. The longest is the marriage rite, which takes six hours. In the moments remaining to me, I wish to acquaint you with a few of these rituals interspersed throughout the life cycle of every Hindu.

Rite to Perform in the Third Month of Conception

The second rite is to conduct the wife safely into the status of a woman already pregnant. Hinduism realises that the first conception is especially awkward and embarrassing to the lady. She must be made to recognise her strange, new condition. She must be assured that the mothers in the community approve of her pregnancy, and that they recognise its legitimacy So the family invites to this ritual a congregation consisting of such mothers, relatives and older persons. After the intermission mentioned above, the husband is required to go aside privately and recite the prescribed passage of scripture. Then he and his wife appear before the priest, who stands in the centre of the gathering. The priest prepares a fine powder of the leaves of the fig tree and of the leaves of the Giloy tree, and the woman has to inhale it with her left nostril. Finally, the husband puts his hand on the abdomen of his wife and recites another passage of scripture. When this is done, the assembly crowds around the couple and offers them felicitations. The older women take the bride aside and give her various assurances.

In analysing this rite we see the three stages already mentioned. The Period of Preparation includes the invitations to the guests, the arrangements for special foods for the occasion, the donning of the best clothing, and above all, thoughts on the significance involved. All of this pertains to the wife. The husband is required to prepare himself especially, since, being busy with his work, he could not give as much thought to what is about to take place in the ceremony. The ritual requires him to go aside with the scriptures, while the guests sit waiting.

The Period of Transition involves the nervous couple throughout the day of the ritual, but especially during their entrance into the circle of guests, and suffering their stares and silence. The procedures during the ritual conduct them through the No Man’s Land of a new experience.

The Period of Incorporation comes as the fact of conception is publicly announced, and the father acknowledges responsibility for the child and its mother. The guests then welcome the couple into the fellowship of parents, while the ladies comfort the wife and make her happy. Henceforth, she feels confident before the world.

Birthrite

The next ritual to be mentioned here is rather interesting because the three aspects are even more obvious. This is the fourth ritual, or birthrite. The attention is more on the child than on the mother. For one thing, the lady has already been inducted into motherhood by three previous rituals. For another, it seems obvious that the child is about to experience an emphatic change of situation and status. So the object of this ritual is to prepare the child for its own birth, to conduct it through the transition period, and to welcome it immediately into the company of this world.

Under the Period of Preparation, the priest prepares the altar just outside the birth chamber and keeps everything in readiness, pending the onset of pains. Also, the expectant mother is anointed with sacred water with the intention that the effects of the holy water may reach the child. The Period of Transition includes the passing of the child into the world. While this is going on, the priest lights the fire at the outside altar and unwraps the offerings, arranging them properly. The father then washes his own hands and legs, and requests the priest to begin the ritual.

The Period of Incorporation is now begun with the general ritual already mentioned. For the specific rite to accept the infant into human society, the following things are done, all of which are accompanied by suitable scripture.

With a wire of gold dipped in a mixture of honey And ghee, the sacred word OM is written on the tongue of the infant.
Then in his left ear the words, “Thy name is Veda” should be uttered; And once more the golden wire, dipped in the mixture of ghee And honey, should be put on the tongue of the child. This is repeated seven times.
A mixture of barley And rice water should be made. And with the thumb and small finger one drop of it should be put in the mouth of the child.
Then the priest utters the prescribed nine verses in the right ear of the infant.
The priest puts his hands on the shoulders of the infant and recites the prescribed mantras three times.
The priest applies scented water to the person of the mother.
The priest blesses the child with Vedic verses.
The priest takes the baby and smells its head. He recites praises of God.

In this Ritual of Incorporation we see clearly how the community of adults defines the child to the world of men. The accepted functionary of this society that is, the priest, speaks for the group. He says, “Thy name is Veda”, or, you are a Hindu. You belong to us. By repeating these mantras we are guaranteeing that you always belong to us. To make it doubly sure we write our most holy syllable, OM, on your very tongue, and may it never be erased. Thus, we welcome you, little one, into our caste.

Rite for Entrance Into Vedic Studies

The eleventh rite of passage is really a continuation of the tenth, and the instructions are that both should take place on the same day if possible, and otherwise only one year apart.

The reason they come so close together is that the Tenth Rite (Initiation) recognises puberty, which in itself signals the beginning of Vedic study, recognised in the Eleventh Rite.

The Period of Preparation is especially marked, therefore, the boy should fast, and take nothing except milk if he is a brahmin; nothing but a curry prepared from sesame and jaggery, if a Kshatriya; and only curds, if a Valshya.

On the ceremony day, the boy puts on nice clothes, and good preparations should be made at home. The ceremony takes place in the morning. As usual, the standard part of the worship service is repeated.

The teacher who is going to take responsibility for the boy’s education is the most important, person in the ritual. After reading the prescribed scripture, the teacher puts the sacred thread on the boy, hanging it from his shoulder down to his waist.

The Period of Transition follows. The previous ritual is repeated and the boy himself takes part in it, and makes the offerings. This is his first experience, his first attempt. He is supposed to walk through this unknown land without stumbling.

Then the teacher should take water in his hand and the student should put his hand with palm open underneath, so that the water falling from the teacher’s hand falls on the student’s hand. While this is being done the teacher recites from the Rig Veda. Then both will go into the open air and look at the sun.

The Act of Incorporation resumed. The student should circumambulate his teacher. The teacher should touch the boy’s stomach and recite mantras; likewise his chest, left shoulder, and the left part of the boy’s chest with his right hand. While doing this the teacher takes a vow to make the student as he himself has become by studies. The boy vows in return that he will always respect this teacher and learn diligently whatsoever he teaches. Then the teacher blesses the boy.

Thus, the lad is carefully conducted into larger responsibilities. Later on in the day, the eleventh rite takes place. It makes the boy willing to beg alms for his teacher, exacts from him various promises, and further strengthens the relationship of teacher and student.

Rite for Abandoning the World in Old Age

The fifteenth rite marks the passage from the world into the life of the sanyasa. The man is about to enter a life of conquering temptation and spiritual exercises. We notice the same general pattern of Preparation, Transition, and Incorporation.

Among the Acts of Preparation are these. Three days before the appointed day for the rite of sanyasa, the candidate should fast and take nothing but milk, should sleep on the ground and spend his time reciting the name of God. Then on the appointed day all the material required for homa and special offerings should be made ready. He should get up before dawn and after morning duties and bath, spend some time in breathing exercises and meditation.

The Acts of Transition proceed as follows. At sunrise the appointed priests and invited guests should gather, and the ceremony with general ritual for Homa Yagna should take place. To the usual accompaniment of Sanskrit mantras there should be fifteen offerings of rice, and thirty-five offerings of ghee.

Then the one who is entering sanyasa should shave his beard, moustache and hair, excepting a bunch of a few hairs in the middle of the head. Next he should have a bath. He should pour water on his head 108 times, reciting the required verses. Once more the special offering should be given. The ceremony with honey follows.

Then he should take a pot of water in his hand and pour the water on the ground. By this symbolic action he should announce that from now on he has left all worldly connection and all the desires of the flesh.

Next he should go and stand in water up to his navel, and facing East recite the prescribed verses. There he plucks five or seven hairs from the lock which is not shaved. He should also remove his sacred thread and hold it in his hand. Then take water in his other hand and put the thread in the water, and offer it to God.

The Act of Incorporation follows as his teacher or guide conducts him out of the water and gives him a loin cloth, an upper garment and a staff. He is now a sanyasi, or an ascetic who has renounced the world.

IN SUMMARY, I have tried to indicate some of the times in life when a man changes his status and his role. Such times are always critical, because the individual has become accustomed to one set of rules which must be exchanged for another. There is every chance that he may waver, or proceed too rapidly, or turn back, and cease to grow mentally or morally. At such times society rallies around to help him, to restrain and to guide him. Society provides Les Rites du Passage. There is no culture known but has such rites of passage, but the number of them varies. Hinduism seems to have decided that there are at least sixteen times in life when a man needs a pilot to conduct his barque through dangerous shoals. Each of its rituals prepares him for the period, and welcomes him into a higher company. In the process he comes to think of himself in a new way; he redefines himself to himself and is enabled to adjust to new demands and new expectancies.

Theologically speaking, there is much more to it than this. The rituals I have mentioned are accompanied by an intensive summary of the Hindu scriptures. The doctrines that comprise the Hindu view of life, are dinned into the brain during the crisis experience. When a man’s attention is unified and intense, when his heart is beating fast, when his emotions burn as never before, the steady voice of the Hindu priest calmly repeats the doctrines.

Any foreigner seeking to understand Hinduism must study these rituals in the life cycle of every man.

The fourth subject with which a foreigner should become familiar (if he would understand Hinduism) is the TRIMURTI, or Hindu Trinity. Trimurti may be defined as “triple form,” or three forms of one God. The picture of the Hindu trimurti appears on the present 9 pies postage stamp, being a photograph of the standard Trimurti sculptured out of rock in the Elephanta Caves at Bombay. Three majestic heads are represented as springing out of one body. Brahma is in the centre, Vishnu on the right, and Siva on the left. Brahma is the quality of passion or desire; Siva is the quality of destruction by which the earth is annihilated; Vishnu is the property of mercy and goodness by which the world is preserved. The short-form of saying the same thing, is, that Brahma. Is the Creator, Siva the Destroyer, and Vishnu the Preserver.

The reason for presenting the Trimurti to you is simple. The Hindu Trinity and its derivatives offer the greatest simplification of orthodox polytheism. On the family tree of the Hindu Trinity you can find the major and minor divisions of contemporary Hinduism, with one major exception, namely the devis and devatas. If you understand the Trimurti you will be able to categorise at least half of what you see today in Hinduism.

We begin with the first member of the Trimurti, namely, Brahma. There is an important distinction between Brahma (short a) and Brahma (long a). The former, also called Brahman, is neuter, and denotes the Supreme Soul of the universe, self-existent, all-pervading and eternal. The latter is masculine, and represents the first member of the Hindu triad; the (Brahma) is the active creator of the universe. The former (Brahma, short a) becomes the leading Principle of the Vedanta philosophy; the latter (Brahma, long a) becomes the fountainhead of Hindu religion.

The first question troubling the Hindu thinkers was the same question that troubles us. Where did the Creator come from? There are four different answers, in four different scriptures, namely, in the Satapatha Brahmana, in the Ramayana, in the Mahabharata, and in Manu. I give only the answer of Manu:

This universe was enveloped in darkness, unperceived, undistinguishable, undiscoverable, unknowable, as it were entirely sunk in sleep. Then the Irresistible, Self-existent Lord, undiscerned, caused the universe with the five elements and all other things, to become discernible, was manifested, dispelling the gloom. He who is beyond the cognisance of the senses, subtle, indiscernible, eternal, who is seeking to produce various creatures from his own body, first created the waters, and deposited in them a seed. This seed became a golden egg, resplendent as the sun, in which he himself was born as Brahma, the progenitor of all the world.

It was Brahma who created gods, demons, rishis, giants, serpents, birds, sheep, goats, in fact, all the animals as well as herbs, roots, fruits and the four castes.

There are many myths about Brahma and his wife Saraswati, but they are mainly of academic interest. Why? Because Brahma was, so to speak, “shelved” or “pigeonholed” by Hinduism. There are two different explanations for neglecting Brahma; one is, that he told a lie and Siva cursed him, saying, Men shall no longer worship thee, and second, that he quarrelled with his own son, Narad, over the latter’s marriage, and Narad condemned his father to be no more worshipped by men. The books on Hinduism written in English maintain that there are only three Hindu temples in India today, that are dedicated to Brahma. But I would deny this, because we have found a Temple to Brahma in Jabalpur, which makes at least four in India. We have also found an image of Brahma on a chabutra in a village about ten miles east of Jabalpur, and this shrine makes at least five.

But the circumstances through which our Brahma temple was built does confirm the scarcity of such. The story goes like this. There used to be an especially big peepal tree in the centre of the city. The land was bought by a rich merchant with the intention of building tenements for rent. Construction began in 1939 when the tree was cut down. Brahmdeo, who lived in that tree, being deprived of his residence, roamed about in great anger. When the construction was complete, the quarters were rented. But people found they could not remain in those tenements, because Brahmdeo used to trouble them very much. Every year somebody died due to Brahmdeo. This fact was reported to the seth, who happens to be a Jain. The Jain said, “Brahmdeo is not in my religion, but we better placate him.” So he made a grant of money for constructing a temple. When the time came to furnish the temple, no Hindu was able to recollect what kind of idol would be the likeness of Brahma. So the solution was to make two footprints on a cement slab, which became the symbol. People put flowers and rice on those footprints. The temple contains also a pair of iron forceps, and two earthen divas. A Brahmin was called for the dedication service. Since that day there has been no unusual happening in the tenements. Brahmdeo is pleased and satisfied. Nobody has since died, nor been even seriously sick.

However, did Hinduism really succeed in “shelving” Brahmdeo? In my opinion, No. He is worshipped in our city in the peepul tree. People say the Brahma is in every peepul tree, and this is approximately true. By inspection, you will find that many peepuls are surrounded with the sacred thread of a Brahmin, for the Hindus say that the god, Brahma, is of the same caste as earthly Brahmins and therefore requires a sacred thread. There will also be incense sticks stuck in the bark, or sipahur colour sprinkled on the roots, and perhaps a mud chabutra. Women are allowed to visit the tree only once a year, because Brahma is a Brahmchariya or celibate, and abhors women; but on that one festival day young women come with spools of thread and wrap the tree 108 times, by which ritual they are enabled to get a good husband and one who will live long. Low castes of either sex cannot worship him.

In summary, Brahma, the Creator, is the first person of the Hindu triad. He is necessary in order to account for the origin of things as they are. There are very few temples for him. But he is very often worshipped as the indwelling god of the peepul tree.

The second person of the Hindu Triad is Vishnu, the Preserver. The scriptures give contradictory accounts of how he came to be, so I shall relate to you the myth told by the common people of Jabalpur. This myth puts the three persons of the triad into rather sensible relations. It goes like this.

“In the beginning, god Brahma created the world. The world was very good; everything was fine, and men enjoyed themselves. Those early people were strong, healthy and beautiful. But after some time the resources of the earth came to an end, and men became weak, lacking many necessities. One day the gods met together to play shatranj, and, while doing so discussed the situation. They decided that there should be one god who would be responsible to sustain the world. He should supply all the resources and needs of men, both rich and poor. So they nominated Vishnu for that purpose, and agreed. Vishnu became responsible to sustain the creation, including men, animals and plants. He did his job well, and soon everything was very lovely. The gods were glad to see the change. But unfortunately the population of the earth began to increase; plants increased, animals increased, everything increased. This multiplication was due to the fact that Vishnu sustained every creature and object, no matter how many more there might be. He provided for all the offspring in addition to the parents, so naturally the increase was enormous.

The gods held another meeting, and asked, “What to do”? First we appointed Vishnu to sustain the earth. Now it has multiplied to such an extent that it requires to be reduced? So the proposal was that one of the gods be appointed as the Destroyer, and to keep a proper balance in all things. This destroyer god was to eliminate excess in anything.

But Indra strongly opposed this suggestion. He exclaimed, “Why did you make a god the Sustainer? One problem creates another. Let us be free of this complicated business. Let each one of us take our own share from the world, choosing whatever we like, and annihilate the rest and be done with it. Then there will be no more new problems.” When Indra made this speech many gods agreed, and exclaimed, “Why should we entangle ourselves unnecessarily? Why give our time and energy to the problems of man and the world?” More gods, however, opposed Indra. They said that if Indra’s plan were followed, the gods would not be able to obtain any more daughters of men for their wives. Others said, “Vishnu has done his job well, and now you annihilate what he has accomplished? Vishnu will fight for his accomplishment, and civil war will result in heaven.” This discussion dragged on for many years, and when the vote was taken, it was in favour of appointing a Destroyer.

The next question was, Whom to appoint? Many suggested Siva, but he first refused. He said, “I have a calm and peaceful nature. Appoint some god who is of a destructive nature, and who will be happy to do it.” But no god volunteered, because all realised that the Destroyer god would be hated and cursed by many people on earth. In the end Siva agreed to act, but stated he would perform his main task only at the end of each yug or age. Siva also said that between each great destruction, if some people worship him very devotedly and sincerely perhaps he would spare such.

Then the informant who told this myth added, as a matter of fact, most people neglect to worship Siva except when trouble, comes. When misfortune, loss, defeat or destruction besets them, they rush to Siva to placate him; but that kind of worship does no good.

WE NOW RETURN TO VISHNU, the second in the Hindu Trinity. He is generally represented as a black man, with four arms. He rides upon Garuda, half man-half bird, His wife is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune. His abode is vaikuntha, or Vishnu’s heaven, said by some to be on Mount Meru, and by others to be in the northern ocean.

There are so many details about Vishnu that might be mentioned, but the central point is that he is a good god to whom men look for all resources. This gives rise to the main characteristic of importance to us, namely, Vishnu’s incarnating himself in the service of man. The doctrine states that whenever a great disorder, physical or moral, disturbs the world, Vishnu descends in a small portion of his essence to set it right, to restore the law, and thus to preserve the creation. Such descents of the god are called his avatars (from AVA down and TRI descent), and they consist in Vishnu’s assuming the form of some wonderful animal or superhuman being, or being born into the world of human parents in human form, but possessed with miraculous powers.

According to the shastras, there have been nine avatars or saviours who have already come down to this earth, of which I shall name only the three most important:

The seventh avatar was Ram-Chandra, who was sent to destroy the tyrant, Ravana, in Ceylon. This famous incarnation is described in the Ramayana, in the well-known Ram-Sita myth.
Thy eighth was Krishna, the most popular avatar today, who was sent to destroy another tyrant, named Kansa.
The ninth was Gotama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.

The Hindus’s sometimes say that more than nine incarnations of Vishnu have come. One nominee is the famous Jagannath at Puri, Orissa, attracting pilgrims from all over India. All agree, however, that another incarnation is still to come, called Kalki. He is to appear at the close of this present evil age, called Kalyug. He is to be revealed in the sky, seated on a white horse, with a drawn sword, blazing like a comet, for the final destruction of the wicked, for the redemption of the gods, for the renovation of all creation, and the restoration of Satyayug.

The next point is, that from Vishnu and his avatars, there has sprung up an enormous number of temples, myths, practices and sects. The whole Vishnu complex is called Vaishnavisni. Vaishnavism has been very prolific, like some enormous vine whose creepers stretch into every corner of India.

Vaishnavism may be divided into four main parts, or sects. The first one was founded by India’s greatest theistic philosopher, named Ramanuja 1017-1137. He was a southerner who recognised the possibilities for theism in a sustaining god like Vishnu, and in personalities like the avatars. Ramanuja’s theism was set against the strict monism of Shankara’s, Vedanta philosophy, and ever since the two have been struggling for mastery. Although Vaishnavism is more prevalent in South India, it has been mediated to North India by many theistic missionaries, of whom the following were disciples of Ramanuja:

Ramananda, active about 1500 A.D., who journeyed to Banaras and preached there. He denied the institution of caste, and preached the worship of one personal God.
Kabir, who died in 1508, the founder of the Kabirpanthis, who tried to reconcile Hinduism and Islam. Kabir wrote some of India’s finest theistic poetry. His songs are still sung by the Kabir pants of Jabalpur.
Nanak, born 1469, was under Kabir’s influence, and, became the founder of a new religion, now called Sikhism.
Dadu, founder of the Dadupanthis.
Raidas, founder of the Raidasis, the religion of many Chamars.
Tulsidas, died 1623, the author of the Ramayana, said to be the bible of ninety million people of North India.

I hope that the mere recital of these names of famous Hindu religious leaders will impress upon you the many ramifications of theistic Vaishnavism.

The second main branch of Vaishnavism was founded by Nimbarka, who founded the famous Radha Krishna cult there, and whose temples are sprinkled all over North India. In Nimbarka’s theistic system, Radha is regarded not as the wife of Krishna but as his mistress in unfettered free love, which he taught symbolises the abandonment with which the soul should give itself to God. Eroticism sometimes resulted. This cult spread to Kashmir and Bengal from Brindaban. In Jabalpur the Radha-Krishna temples are generally clean, artistic and attractive. One of them provides the idols with different sets of beautiful robes, changing them daily. Fine Indian music is to be heard there.

The third main branch of Vaishnavism was founded by Madhave, d 1276, who was a dualistic philosopher. Two of his monks immigrated to Bengal and converted a famous saint named Chaitanya. Chaitanya’s Vaishnavism has given a distinctive colour to the Hinduism of Bengal and North India. Chaitanya founded the Gaudiya Vaishnava School, in which emotional bhakti was expressed in dancing, singing, and tempestuous behaviour ending in ecstasy and swoon.

The fourth main branch of Vaishnavism was founded by Visnuswamis, of whom little is known. But his disciples were among the greatest singers and poets that India has ever produced. For instance, there was Namdev, born 1270, who sang throughout the Marathi country and laid the foundation for the devotional music of Maharashtra. I would say, leaving the religious issues aside for this remark, that from the standpoint of thrilling music and fervid preaching, a Marathi Vaishnava convention is artistically among India’s best. Then there was the famous Tukaram, born 1608, who is said to have composed four thousand six hundred songs that are sung throughout the South today. Tukaram urged a deep sense of sin and the saving grace of Krishna.

Besides the four main branches there are many, many twigs and leaves to Vaishnavism. The second person of the Hindu triad, Vishnu, has given rise to a prolific, flowering vine. Theistic Vaishnavism has given India its orthodox personal deity, much of its poetry and song, innumerable temples, and many monastic orders. Vaishnava monks make perpendicular, coloured marks on their forehead, supposed to denote impress of the feet of Vishnu, and to possess great efficiency in shielding from evil influences and in delivering from sin. In addition to these frontal marks, most of the sects brand the chest and arms with the chakra and conch shell of Vishnu.

SO FAR in these remarks I have presented Brahma, the first person of the Hindu triad, the Creator, who, having done his work, was cursed for telling a lie. Brahma has given rise to no branches or sects, and his temples are very rare. His worship survives in the peepul tree.

I have also introduced Vishnu, the Sustainer, and his human avatars, and pointed out the tremendous development. This type of Hinduism is theistic, and has produced one of the two greatest philosophic systems, innumerable temples, worship that is emotional and enthusiastic, doctrines of sin and grace, and many monastic orders. If you can keep the worship of Brahma and Vishnu separate in your mind, and if you learn to recognise each, you will be on the road to an understanding of Hinduism.

The third person in the Hindu triad is Siva, whose many names include Rudra, Shiva, Shankarji. His residence is Mount Kailash, somewhere in the Himalayas North of lake Manasa, where he dwells with countless troops of servants. There he lives with his wife, Parvati, also called Durga, Kali, Uma, Bhavani (which means that Kali worship and Durga puja are associated with the third person of the triad). He has two sons, one Skanda (whose head and neck usually appear on the floor of a Shiva temple), and Ganesha, the god with the elephant head.

Shiva is shown in two forms. The first is as a human, commonly with a moon or crescent above his forehead, a serpent around his neck, and with a necklace of skull. His body is generally smeared with ashes, and his hair is thickly matted and coiled. Out from the top of his head there comes the Ganges River. His complexion is sometimes whitish due to reflection from the snows of Kailash. His throat is blue from the stain of deadly poison which he drank to save the human race. He rides on a white bull, called Nandi, for which cause a bullock is set loose by the friends of a Shiv worshipper who has just died. He is sometimes clothed in a deer skin, or in a tiger’s or elephant’s skin that belonged to the demon, Gaya, whom he slew. He carries a trident, a bow, a thunderbolt, a noose for binding his enemies, and a drum.

The other form of Siva is in the well known linga and yoni, to be explained in a moment. Monier Williams says that Siva has five main characteristics:

He is the destroyer.
He is the reproductive power of nature. Siva is supposed to reproduce after destruction, and hence the linga and yoni.
He is the typical ascetic. Shiva is supposed to have attained, the highest perfection in austerity and abstract meditation. So he is called Maha Yogi. In this character he appears quite naked, with ash-besmeared body, and matted hair, sitting in profound meditation under a tree, and often under a canopy formed by a serpent’s head. There he is supposed to remain passionless, motionless, immovable as the trunk of a tree, and perhaps rooted to the same spot for millions of years.

Many Shaivites (as followers of Siva are called) practice great austerities, and resort to cruel rites as a means of gaining his favour. The Shaivite ascetics wander over the face of India, expose themselves to cold and heat, inflict pain on arms and legs, remain in one posture for long periods; or, they allow the thumbnail to grow through their fingers, gaze into the sun until blind, take vows of silence. They swing from bamboos, hang from iron hooks forced into their bodies, or fall on nails and knives. At such times the intoxicating drug, hemp, is freely indulged in. The Shaivite monk makes horizontal marks on his forehead.

The extremists are the Aghorapanthis, of whom some are in Jabalpur. They propitiate Shiva by their revolting diet, feeding on filth and dung of different kinds. Some are said to steal corpses to eat. Their object is to show that they are willing to do anything for Siva, and that they are so completely devoted to him, that loathsome diet has no effect upon them. So much for Shiva, the great ascetic.
Shiva is also the learned sage. The whole grammar of Panini, the greatest of Indian grammarians, is supposed to have been revealed to him by Shiva. A verse from Manu says, Shiva is the lord of the learned Brahmans. He is well-skilled in the Veda, and wears a Brahamical thread.
Shiva is represented as the lord of demons and dancers. As such he is called Bhutasvara, and Natesvar. In these characters he haunts cemeteries and burning grounds, wearing serpents around his head, and skulls for a necklace, attended by troops of spirits. He sometimes indulges in revelling, and, heated with drink, dances furiously with his wife, Devi. The worshippers of Siva in this case, usually belong to the Saktas.

The worship of Shiva is chiefly in North India, but is found also in every part of the country. There are twelve chief temples, whose locations emphasise how widespread is his influence.

The famous Somnath temple in Gujarat
Muliba Arjuna, on The shell mountain in Kashmir
And 4 are two temples at Ujjain
One in Perlia village Hyderabad
Vhimshankaram in The South
Rameshwar temple on Cape Comorin
Nagesh at Dadukaband, in The south
The famous Golden Temple of Vishwanath at Benares
Trimbak at Nasik
Kedarnath in the Himalayas
Bhusnshwer in the Siwalaks just South of Dehra Dun.

In other words, Shaivism is spread throughout India. Shaivism has developed differently than Vaishnavism, about as follows:

There are a number of Shaivite denominations divided by abstruse philosophic points. I will give you an illustration by referring to the Lingayats, who say that Brahman is Sat or existence, Chit or intelligence, and Anand or joy. He is the Sthala, or that to which all else returns. Sthala divides into two by his own innate power, namely, into Lingasthala, or Shiv, and into Angasthala, or the individual soul. They say that the linga is Siva himself and it is not a symbol. There are six kinds of lingas corresponding to the six ways we may look at God, namely,

God as independent, God as Creator, God as distinct from material world, God as celestial matter, God as Instructor, God as Redeemer.

The Lingayats abstain from meat and drink, allow their widows to remarry, and wear a lingam around their neck. Sometimes they keep the lingam in a silver box suspended from a cord around their neck. Because they have the lingua always with them, they do not feel attendance at temples to be necessary.

These brief remarks about the Lingayats are merely to sample the various Shaivite denominations, divided on points of philosophy.
Since the masses of men are not philosophers, Shaivism became associated in their minds with the wife of Shiva. There are several scores of names for Shiva’s wife which need not be recounted here. The main point is that this goddess is the embodiment of Sakti, or power. Some people define Sakti as energy, the energy of willing, acting, creating, all of which is thought of as part of the female principle. Shaivites who adhere to the cult of Shiva’s wife, are said to follow either one of the three forms of worship:
1. The bland form, or conventional form of quiet, respectful meditation on the creative force
2. The fierce form, in which Shiva’s wife is represented as bloodthirsty. It is this form that induces animal sacrifices, especially of chickens, baby pigs goats, and sometimes cows and buffaloes. Even though the Central Government has tried to discourage animal sacrifice it continues, especially during the month of Kunwar in the fall, and Chait in the spring. The Hindus of our locale think there is a law against animal sacrifice, but they persist in it nevertheless. According to some passages of scripture the best sacrifice of all is that of a human being. A human sacrifice took place in our city two years ago. A father of three daughters, took the youngest one of them (about three years of age) to the wife of Shiva, knocked her unconscious, and then opened her jugular vein and poured the child’s lifeblood on the idol. The father was arrested and sentenced to hang. At the last minute he was reprieved, and given life imprisonment, but the case is not finally settled. His plea was that he was simply satisfying the goddess. Such cases are now extremely rare and are denounced by most Hindus.
3. The third form of sakti worship is the sensual form, which need not be elaborated here, and which probably is dying out.
The people who, worship Shiva’s wife are called Saktas. Much of Kali worship and Durga worship is probably to be classed under the Saktas. Those Hindus who worship Shiva’s wife by all three forms (the bland form, the fierce form, and the sensual form) are called Tantrics. Tantrism is found chiefly in northeast India.
The third way in which Shaivism developed is in the popular form. In our city the most frequently seen idol is the Shiv Lingam and yoni. These symbols are in private houses, under trees, in temples, and especially at wells. They say that Shiva is satisfied only with a water offering, which is cheap.

Furthermore, the linga symbol is no item of expense. The devotee need only go to the Nerbudda River and find some oval-shaped stone. Usually he brings home a dozen or even twenty of them for the chabutra beside his well. He plants various flowers by the chubutra, and plucks the blossoms for the daily offering. The Hindu will rise early, come to the well for his ceremonial bath, don clean and fresh clothing. Then he spends a half hour meditating on the destructive power of Siva. The next thing is to pour water on the stones, which is interpreted as giving Shiva a bath. The devotee may next take siddur or turmeric with which to make designs on the lingams, and this is followed by offerings of flowers.

Any caste whatever may worship Shiva, and most of them do. But Shiva is still the chief god of the middle and upper castes. My experience and information leads me to think that there is no single need that Shiva satisfies. All manner of petitions and praises are addressed to him. He can give a man or woman just about anything requested, provided he is willing. A noteworthy feature of Shiv worship in our area is its close association with the sacred tulsi plant. The two occur together very frequently in private homes. Another interesting function of Shiva in our area is to serve as a means of social mobility, upwards in the caste structure. You see, the Central Government has made it illegal to prevent low castes from entering Hindu temples. As far as my information goes, the Jabalpur priests are obeying the law, physically. There is no case of disobedience coming to my attention. But the low castes do not go to the temples, because they do not feel at ease. People don’t speak to them. There are many devices by which the unwanted may be made to feel unwelcome. So the low castes prefer to express their new independence by replacing their low caste gods with high caste gods. Instead of going to the high caste temple, they bring back the high caste god to their own shrines. The god they usually substitute for the one they had, is Shiva. Then they say, What is the use of our going to the distant Shiva temples? We have Shiva here!

IN SUMMARY, I began by saying that the Trimurti offers the student a convenient frame on which to hang about half of the manifestations of contemporary Hinduism. If a foreigner understands the definitions of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiv, and if he can trace their developments and derivations out into the many symbols, institutions and functionaries, then he will classify much of what he sees and hears in Hindu religious circle today. I exhort you, therefore, to master the family tree of the Trimurti. Become familiar with the doctrines, myths and scriptures referring to Brahma. Find out why the worshippers of Brahma hang the ashes of their deceased relatives from the branches of the peepul tree. Discover why no marriage party dares to incur the wrath of Brahma by passing within the shadow of that peepul.

By all means make yourself familiar with, Vishnu, and with his greatest thinker, Ramanuja, whose theism is even today in the curriculum of Indian Philosophy. Become familiar with the biographies of his chief avatars, the manly Ram, and the winsome Krishna. Study the poetry and the music of Vaishnavism, and learn to recognise its monks and holy men.

Shiva is full of variations. His chief business is to destroy, yet he creates also. He is a learned sage, and at the same time a fanatical ascetic, following two different paths in Hinduism. He is the reproductive power in nature, and at the same time the lord of demons and tigers. Shiva is the pride of Shaivite philosophy, and his wife is the dread of the common people. His worship has been accompanied by much spilling of blood, because of this wife, On the other hand, he is the common household god of millions of quiet Hindus, who address to him all the normal petitions of the human heart.

The three members of the Trimurti are more widely known to the masses than any other gods of India. Take them seriously. The next time you affix a nine pies postage stamp to Your letter, look at the Trimurti and see whether you can recall all that for which it stands.

Durga in Hinduism

Popular Hinduism might be said to be Fynaecocentric if the place given to Durga is taken into consideration. She is called by many names, Chandi, Chamundi, Kumari, Gauri, Bhavani, Kapalini, Vijaya, Valk, Kali, Parvati, Bhadra Kali, Uma, Devi, Mahishasuramartini, Parasakti, Lokamaya etc. She is conceived as the universal power from which all powers have originated.

The name Durga probably designated that goddess in her terrific character. She presents a variety of characteristics, some of which are actually contradictory features. Thus, she is represented as a benevolent and gracious lady and at the same time as an insatiable and terrible destroyer.

Durga in the Vedas

The tenth Mandala of the Rig Veda has what is known as the Devisukta. Here the Devi claims that it is by her the eye is enabled to see, and the ear is helped to hear, and the breath is made possible to breathe. Before the manifest world came into existence, she claims to have existed in the form of Vayu and was immanent in the unmanifest.

In the Kena Upanishad there is a beautiful story. In a certain war between the Devas and Ashuras, the Devas are victorious, and so they get elated and each one of them is ascribing to his valour and heroic action, the great victory. At this juncture the mysterious Brahm appears and none of the gods do not even seem to know who that was. So, they send Agni as their representative to find out who this newcomer was. When Agni went to the Brahm, he was asked about his power. Agni replied that he could burn anything and the Brahm presented a straw to test whether Agni could burn it. Agni tried and tried but could not burn it. So he returned, crestfallen and dejected. So, Vayu came, and he found that he could not lift the lightest straw. Finally, Indra himself came. Then there appeared a beautiful damsel, who told Indra that the Mysterious stranger was Brahm, the innermost secret of reality unknown even to gods, but the one by whom things get their essence and energy, and that it was by the Brahm that the devas got their victory over Asuras. This beautiful devi was none other than Durga. Of course commentators of the Upanishad mean by this that this story tells that Durga possesses secrets of knowledge inaccessible even to gods and as such is the medium or source of inspiration.

Narayana Upanishad says: “I take refuge in Durga whose body is like that of fire, who shines by her own majesty, and who should be worshipped for gaining ends, (literally fruits of deeds.) She will help us to cross the sea of births.”

Durga in Puranas

In the Markandeya purana Durga promises, that she would appear in response to the prayers of the rishis, whenever there is no rain in the land, and that she would feed the people of the earth by the very substance of her body. Durga is also spoken of as the vegetation spirit and as such we are reminded of Demeter in the Grecian mythology. It is interesting to note that the festival of Durga appears about the time of harvest and so to the agricultural class it is a time of rejoicing.

In the Mahabharata Dharmav’s praise of Durga is found in Virataparva that is when the five brothers were living incognito. But in the Bhishmapary, Krishnan urges Arjuna to worship Durga so that victory might be secured in battle. In Valmiki’s Ramayana, they say, the word Durga is not found at all.

Incarnations of Durga

When Mahishasuran had to be slain, it is stated that she took the form of Kali and Chandi. This is her chief form. At Cape Comorin she is worshipped as Kumari that is as virgin goddess. A local story is prevalent explaining the big white sand crystals found in the beach there, as the rice cooked for the marriage of Kumari, which was cancelled at the last moment and that the devi never married again. During the ‘Nine nights’ of the exhibition, she is worshipped as Rajarajishvari. These nights are special sources of delight to many Hindus, ladies and children especially, because there is constant house visiting, singing of songs and distribution of sweets.

During the Dasera festival at Mysore, Durga is given a very great emphasis under the name Chamundi. In Bengal, she is worshipped as Girijah. Here, she is not a virgin but rather the wife of Shiva who comes to her parents home with her two small children. Subhra-Manya and Ganesha. When her mother sees her she sheds tears that her daughter has lost weight by bearing two sons. On account of this every wedded wife is welcomed with great reverence and respect during the puja days of Durga. In Silapathikaram (Circa 200 B.C.) there is a reference to the dance of Durga. The passage alludes to the wooden leg dance of the lady of Maya, when the Avunars incited the scorpions and serpents to go against her.

In Madhya Pradesh Durga is a benign goddess giving corn and grain to the people. So she is very much like Demeter of Grecian Mythology and her worship is connected with the harvesting of crops. In Kashmir, Durga is a virgin goddess, the goddess of purity.

Durga in Sculpture

James Fergussen in his History of Indian and Eastern Architecture says, that the Indian ambassador to Bardsanes (Circa A.D. 220) described a cave in North of India which contained an image of a God half man and half woman. (Vol. I, p. 42) Evidently this was a Shiva Parvati image.

Probably the most ancient of the existing images is the one that is found in Udayagiri. It is dated the fifth century of our era. The sculpture of Durga at the Seven Pagodas near Madras is very famous. The retreating forces of Asuras on one hand and the advancing of the Devi with her forces on the other hand gives a balance and the artistic appeal is one that cannot be easily forgotten. The figures of Durga in the Ajanta caves show distinct lines of advance. The image of Durga found in almost all big villages seem to be modelled from these classical sculptures. But of course there are many additions as the next para shows. It is a remarkable thing that Durga temples always face the north.

The Form of Durga

In her temples Durga “is represented as a very black female, with four arms, having in one hand a scimitar, and in another the head of a giant which she holds by the hair; another hand is spread open bestowing a blessing; and with the other she is forbidding fear. She wears two dead bodies for ear rings and a necklace of skulls, and her tongue hangs down to her chin. The hands of several giants are hung as a girdle round her loins and her tresses fall down to her heels. Having drunk the blood of the giants she has slain in combat, her eyebrows are bloody, and the blood is falling in a stream down her breast; her eyes are red like those of a drunkard. She stands with one leg on the breast of her husband - and rests the other on his thigh” (Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Vol. II, page 492.)

Sacrifices Offered to Durga

Durga is a demanding goddess. She demands the highest and the best. A study of these sacrifices alone will yield fruitful results.

In the Kalika Purana it is stated that the offering of one’s own blood is very pleasing to Durga. Even now it is a common practice specially in Bengal. “When a husband or son is dangerously ill, a vow is made, that on the recovery of the patient the goddess will be propitiated with human blood. The vow is fulfilled either at the next Durga Puja or at once in some temple of Kali. The wife or mother after performing certain ceremonies, draws a few drops of blood from her breast with a nail cutter and offers them to the goddess. Of course centuries gone by, human sacrifices to Durga was a common practice. Nowadays, buffaloes and goats are the most commonly offered as sacrifice to Durga. However, in recent years there has been a definite movement to put an end to these sacrifices. But till about ten years back, what John Morrison, in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics Vol. VII, page 643 says is true.

Says he of the Kalighat temple at Calcutta, “Between seven and eight hundred goats are said to be sacrificed during the three days of the Durga puja.” The decapitation taking place within the temple enclosure it becomes at such times a veritable shambles, muddy with trodden earth and blood. From the place of decapitation the heads are carried to be piled up before the idol, and become there after temple perquisites, the worshipper carrying away the body with him to furnish the family feast. ‘In this sacrificing there is no idea of effacing guilt or making a vicarious offering for sin.’

Durga in Hindu Theology

In working out their systematic statements concerning the person and work of Durga, Hindu theologians often use Christian dogmatic formulae. Here are two quotations:

“Mahakali is neither made, nor created nor begotten from Mahalakshmi, but she proceeds from the latter.” Gaurinath Sastri in the 1954 Puja Number ‘Amrita Bazaar Patrika’ p. 10.

The basic unity of - Mahalakshmi, Mahakali, and Mahasarasvati constitutes the background of the shakti conception of Trinity. By the shakta conception of Trinity is meant the mysterious manifestation of the one great goddess Chandika, in the form of three goddesses each subsisting distinct in the same identical divine Nature. The Shaktas speak of the mystery of the blessed trinity because they think that they are stating a mystery. As far as human experience goes, wherever there is plurality of persons, there is a plurality of individual nature. Without the authority of the sacred texts it would never have been possible for us to conceive of an absolute identity of nature in three distinct persons.

The Christian Evangelist and Durga Worship

Durga worship in India seems to be very deeply rooted and a study of Durga worship yields fruitful results to Christian workers.

Many scholars are of opinion that Durga worship is a contribution of the religion of non-Aryans. If this is true, we can see how Hinduism reacts to foreign elements. The bosom of Brahmanism was large enough to give a special place to Durga. Various concepts were coalesced and amalgamated, and the Devi became part and parcel of Hinduism. The formula seems to be somewhat like this “you accept my gods and goddesses and I will accept yours.” This process of absorption has not come to an end. The article by Rev. Diehl entitled “Extra Muros” (The Pilgrim, May issue, 1953.) shows how active modern Hinduism is along this line. Hindu friends are trying to do the same to Christ, and put Jesus into a niche in the pantheon of Hinduism.
The sacrifices offered to Durga show that her devotees are desirous of giving just for the joy of giving. For by these offerings no guilt is propitiated. No sin is atoned by these sacrifices. Many times costly gifts are offered for favours granted, and they give beyond their means, with willing hearts and a cheerful spirit.
The worship experience of Durga’s devotees deserve special consideration. Durga is ferocious in appearance. Yet she is loved and worshipped. The clue to this mystery is to be found in the sense of mysterium tremendum so well described by Rudolf Atto in his Idea of the Holy. There is something which is mysterious, - an unknowable element, which inspires the sense of awe. This essence of awe seems to be an essential element in the worship, experience of the Hindu.
The integration of Durga into the various aspects of Hindu life gives her a deep-rooted significance in their religion. The festival of Durga is one such integrating factor. Popular Hindu religion has a large element of social thinking and social feeling, and festivals are only concrete expressions of this feature of Hinduism. To the average Hindu family especially in Bengal, the Durga Puja is a time of joy and delight of merriment and laughter, of good cheer and happy innocent abandon.

The women are honoured and given special reverence. Married girls are invited by their parents. The story of Shiva’s wife coming to her parents is dramatically enacted to rouse the feeling of the masses.
In India the idea of God as mother is very deeply rooted. Among the Roman Catholics the worship of the Blessed Virgin Mary has often been carried to extravagant length. The neo-Hindu think that the worship of Durga is a beautiful way of thinking of the tender and devoted unselfish love of God. But history has shown that many objectionable forms of Sakti worship have arisen especially where Durga is worshipped with intense feelings.

Book Reviews

The Religion of the Hindus Edited

By Kenneth W. Morgan (New York, The Ronald Press Company) pp. 434.

This book is intended mainly for the Westerner and has come out on the initiative of the National Council on Religion in Higher Education of the United States of America. The Editor is a Quaker. Since 1946 he has been chaplain and professor of Religion at Colgate University. He believes that a real understanding of non-Christian religions would be promoted if devout adherents of those religions could be persuaded to describe all aspects of their religious life in terms intelligible to the Western reader. So he has with great care chosen seven competent writers, esteemed by Hindus not only for their scholarship but also their piety, and these distinguished scholars have contributed each a chapter according to the general outline provided by the editor.

The book has two parts. Part one deals with “Beliefs and Practices”, “The Nature and History of Hinduism”, “The Hindu Concept of God”, “Concept of the Natural World”, “The Role of Man in Hinduism”, “Religious Practices of the Hindus”, and “Hindu Religious Thought” are some of the chapter headings.

The second part consists of selections from Hindu sacred writings. Extreme care has been given to include as much as possible of the best of the Scriptures.

So, the book is very attractive in its set up and presents Hinduism in its best possible light. However, that which is given here is the ideal accepted by the higher or philosophical Hinduism. But a large majority of Hindus, have forms or worship and religious practices that are quite different. Probably these omissions have not been made purposely.

Indian Philosophy

By CHANDRADHAR SHARMA (Benares, Nand Kishore & Bros. 1952) pp. 574, price Rs. 12.8.0.

Here is a very readable book on Indian Philosophy, even though it has been written “with the intention that it may serve as a text book for use in the Universities and Colleges where Indian Philosophy is taught.” The Author’s aim is very high and noble for it. He says in the preface “I firmly believe that Philosophy, especially Indian Philosophy if properly understood, has much to contribute to the development of human personality and to making life more worth living, by removing or at least very much lessening the misery, the dishonesty, the corruption and the fear under whose pressure the modern world is so helplessly groaning.” The fact that others do not share this belief, does not in any way minimise the author’s high and noble intentions.

The great value of this book to students is the fact that the author does not follow slavishly the style and plan of other text books now in vogue on the subject. He has studied the original sources himself, and has interpreted them. On all matters of fundamental importance he has quoted the original texts so that the reader may judge for himself.

The presentation given here is clear, connected and comprehensive. The author has no doubt tried to be impartial. But when one reads the books he finds that the author is a dyed-in-the-wool Advaita Vedantic and that he is rather harsh in his criticism of schools that sharply differ from Sankara. Here are a few quotations. “The conception of the soul in Nyaya Vaishesika is the most absurd and degrading in the whole field of Indian Philosophy.” In criticising the Samkhya concept of the individuality of souls he says, “If all Purushas are essentially the same there is no meaning in proclaiming their quantitative plurality. Numerical pluralism is sheer nonsense.” (p. 233)

Again in describing Ramanujas’ position he says “Many passages in the Upanishads which emphatically assert the unity of the absolute and strongly condemn multiplicity in unambiguous terms are simply explained away by Ramanuja” (Italics ours) p. 514.

However, these remarks indicate the personal preferences of the author and in this way helps the reader.

The book is a welcome addition to the subject, and we hope the author will produce many more books of this type.

Story Section

Once upon a time there lived an old woman named Auvai. She was weak in body but strong in her mind and spirit. She lived in that part of South India where Tamil is the language spoken. Summer is rather hot there. It so happened that one day Auvai was tired and weary and was seeking shelter from the scourging heat of noon. With her spirit of independence she did not choose to knock at the door of her friends - it was a strange place, and probably she had no acquaintance there. But she was exhausted, and she could not stand the strain of walking unto the place she wanted to reach, and finding a temple nearby she tottered and found her way into its inviting shade. This temple like most of the Hindu temples had a shrine in which was placed an idol. A dim light greatly overpowered by the blazing noon daylight could barely be seen flickering before it. There were no worshippers except a priest who was intently reading some devout literature. Of course, he had no book in his hand … But long Palmyra leaves with letters that were inscribed by iron stencils took the place of books and the priest had in his hands a sheaf of these leaves neatly tucked together. He was so deeply absorbed in reading that he did not even notice Auvai entering the temple.

The old lady sat down comfortably and relaxed herself conveniently with her feet stretched towards the shrine. When, after some time, the priest turned his eyes away from reading, to his amazement and anger he saw an ugly woman with her legs stretched towards the shrine. Stretching one’s legs towards a person showed, according to his cultural background, an attitude of disdain and contempt. Furious with righteous indignation he flew at her hurling abusive words of reproach. He scolded her for sacrilege, charged her being guilty of desecrating the holy temple, and peremptorily ordered her to get out.

Auvai was very calm. She smiled sweetly. “My son my sweet darling,” she said “I am at your orders and I shall obey you willingly and with gladness if you can just tell me where to stretch these tired limbs of mine - tell me the direction for place where God is not.”

The priest wanted to answer her effectively. So he began to think. ‘If’ he reasoned within himself, “the idol was only a symbol of the Reality present everywhere, that idol could not be defiled by any act that does not offend God.” Auvai’s answer silenced the priest. But it did something more. It has taught that it is the motive, intention, and will in the heart of man that defiles him rather than unintentional acts.

Printed by Rev. W.W. Bell at the Lucknow Publishing House, Lucknow - (200) - 359 - 11-1954.

Patrons:

The Metropolitan of India, Calcutta.
Bishop Clement D. Rockey, Lucknow.

President:

The Rt. Rev, C.J.G. Robinson, M.A., Allahabad.

Vice-Presidents:

The Rt. Rev. A.J. Appasamy, M.A., Ph.D., Coimbatore.
The Rev. C.E. Abraham, M.A., B.D., D.D., Serampore.
The Rev. C.S. Thoburn, M.A., S.T.B., Jabalpur.

Secretary of Society:

Dr. A. Ralla Ram, Jamna, Allahabad.

Convener of Institutes:

Rev. R.C. Das, M.A., 129 Dashashwamedh, Banaras, U.P.

Editor of the Pilgrim:

Dr. R.D. Immanuel, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur, M.P.

Treasurer:

Prof. P.C. Addy, M.A., Bible House, Thornhill Road, Allahabad.

Committee:

Prof. V.E. Devadut, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., Serampore
The Rev. Paul Das, B.A., Allahabad.
The Rev. C.G. Diehl, Madura.
The Principal, School of Islamics, Aligarh.
Mr. S.J. Duraiswamy, B.A., N.M.S. Madras.
The Rev. R.W. Scott, M.A., Christian Council, Nagpur.

Editorial Committee:

Rt. Rev. Bishop A.J. Appasamy, Coimbatore.
Rev. C.G. Diehl, Madura.
Rev. R.C. Das, M.A., Benares.

P.D. Padale, A case Study of Endowned Arya Samaj in Hinditown (Jabalpur, Department of Organised Research of Leonard Theological College, 1953)↩︎

Jesus Bhakti in Hindu Communities

Autobiographical Writings

Missions

Sri Hriday Gita

The Seeker

The Church of Christ