The Pilgrim

The Quarterly Bulletin of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Editor: Rev. Dr. R.D. IMMANUEL

Now Available

From:

The North India Christian Tract Society, 18 Clive Road, Allahabad.

Copies of (Price Rs. 15):

• The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama.
• A New Translation by W.D.P. Hill.
• Tulsidas’s Ramacharitra Manasa.

Editorial Notes

God, who commanded the light to shine out of darkness, hath shined in our hearts, to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ. II Corinth. 4:6.

The Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

1. How It All Came About

Soon after I had joined the Church through baptism in 1908 a serious reflection dawned on my mind that the Church and especially its evangelistic personnel needed to understand the faith and culture of the people among whom it was situated. For lack of adequate knowledge and proper relationship to Hinduism the Church remained largely exotic and ineffective in its witness. In the several centres where I served as teacher and evangelist - Calcutta, Agra, Nadia and Rungpur (N. Bengal) I tried in various practical ways to interest Christian workers in the study of Hinduism with some success. It was not until I joined the “Banaras United City Mission” in 1930 that my attempts took a definite shape. Banaras provided a suitable atmosphere and a dynamic inspiration. I started with the Catechists and Colporteurs of the local Churches and the enquirers and converts, a Saturday morning class in which we discussed some of the simpler and more practical elements of the Hindu belief and practice and an effective Christian approach to it. We demonstrated some of our ideas and methods in the actual work of witness in the City, suburbs, ghats, temples, and Ashrams and in educational institutions of Banaras. We were encouraged by the results and opportunities of our line of approach. We used to receive in the Khristpanthi Ashram, then an adjunct to the Mission, visiting workers from outside missions and churches for them to get some practical experience of work among Hindus.

This continued till one fine winter morning in January 1939, there appeared before me a young and keen American Missionary, (in the person of the Rev. H.H. Presler), then Pastor of the Union Church in Naini Tal. He was so impressed by what we were trying to do in a way different from the usual line and by the opportunities and conditions in the city during a stay of three days that he decided to come and stay three months later on, and he did it.

In three months (1939-40) we traversed the city together and gathered facts and decided to start a study course in Hinduism in a formal way at least for one to three months in the year at Banaras. We jointly issued a pamphlet called “A proposal for a school of Hinduism in Banaras”, and broadcast it throughout India and also in U.S.A., and U.K. It brought an encouraging response from all over, especially from missionaries and theological centres. So we arranged for a regular three months course of study in the winter. The pamphlet and the notice of the course attracted the attention of the Rev. Dr. A.J. Appasamy, M.A., Ph.D. - now the Rt. Rev. Bishop at Coimbatore - and he came and joined us as a member of the teaching staff. It was very generous of him that he came successively for three years largely on his own financial responsibility.

The same year 1940, on February 15, a conference of people interested and concerned and representing different churches and missions was called to Banaras to inaugurate the “Christian Society for the study of Hinduism” and decided to start a quarterly magazine - the “Pilgrim”. Among the foundation members have been the following:

Dr. A.J. Appasamy (President), Rev. H.H. Presler (Secretary), Rev. J.N. Rawson, Vice-Principal, Serampore College (Treasurer), Rev. W. Machin (Br. Meth. Church), Bishop B.T. Bradley (M.E. Ch.), Rev. E.A. Bacon (Chaplain, Banaras), Rev. J.E. McEldowney (Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur), Rev. M.D. Patial (Bareilly Theological Seminary), Rev. H.L. Solter (Assembly of God), Rev. S.I. Saadatullah (Br. Meth.), Rev. M. Moses (Church of God, Calcutta), Rev. A.C. Chakravarty (Vrindaban Ashram), Rev. Uday Singh (M.E. Ch.), Rev. S.R. Holt, and R.C. Das (Banaras United City Mission) as Convener of Institute.

2. The Aims and Objects of the Society

1. To create and maintain adequate interest in the study of Hinduism by Christians,
2. To carry on the study in a sympathetic, constructive and critical way for the purposes of effective evangelism,
3. To discover scholars of Hinduism with teaching and literary abilities,
4. To promote the organisation of a permanent school of Hinduism,
5. To achieve the above objects in co-operation with Church and Mission bodies.

The activities of the Society:

1. An Institute of Hinduism in Banaras,
2. The publication of the “Pilgrim”, a quarterly research journal bearing on Hinduism, its relation to Christianity and work among Hindus,
3. Arranging courses of study in outside centres.

3. The Office-Bearers

The first President of the Society was Bishop B.T. Badley, deeply interested, who was followed by Bishop C.D. Rockey and The Rt. Rev, C.J.G. Robinson (present President).

The first Secretary of the society was the indefatigable Rev. Dr. H.H. Presler followed by Mrs. W.S. Gould (Ewing Christian College), Dr. J.E. McEldowney (Leonard College), R.C. Das, Dr. A. Ralla Ram (present Secretary).

The first Treasurer was the Rev. J.N. Rawson (Serampore) followed by Dr. G.C. Angus (Principal, Serampore College), Rev. S.R. Holt (B.U.C.M.), Dr. C.H. Hazlett (Am. P. Mission), Rev. C.S. Thoburn, Rev. A.D. Hunt (Br. Meth.), Prof. P.C. Addy (present Treasurer).

Vice-Presidents have been Dr. A.J. Appasamy, Dr. G.C. Angus, Dr. C.E. Abraham, Bishop Bill of Lucknow, Rev. O.L. Davis (Jabalpur), Rev. C.S. Thoburn (Jabalpur).

Patrons have been - The Metropolitan, Bishop B.T. Badley and Bishop C.D. Rockey.

Convener of Institutes - R.C. Das.

Editor of the ‘Pilgrim’ - Dr. Appasamy (who started and established the journal), Rev. J.S. Moon, Sri P. Chenchiah, and Dr. R.D. Immanuel (present Editor). Committee members and representatives have included Mr. S.J. Duraisamy (N.M.S.), Principal of the School of Islamics, Rev. R.W. Scott (N.C.C.), Rev. A. McLeish (W.D.P.), Dr. M.T. Titus (N.C.C.), Dr. V.E. Devadutt (Serampore).

4. Lecturers and Teachers Have Been

1. Hindus - Dr. Radha Krishnan, V.C.m B.H.U., Dr. Bhagwan Das (noted scholar and statesman), Swami Jhananandard (Head of Bharat Dharma Mahamandal - Sanatani organisation), Dr. Altekar (Prof. of Ancient Indian History and author, B.H.U.), Dr. B.L. Atreya (Head of Philosophy Department, B.H.U.), Pandit Ram Krishna Mira (President - Arya Samaj and Nagri Pracharini Sabha and Principal, Central Hindu Schools), Dr. M.D. Shastri (Principal, Government Sanskrit College), Mahamahopadhyava P.N. Tarkabhusan - (Director of Sanskrit Studies and Religious Education, B.H.U.), Monks of the Ramkrishna Mission and Buddhist Scholars of Mahabodhi Society, Sarnath (Anandji, Kashyapji, Dharmanandji, Sister Vajira), Teachers of Jain Pathshala, Leaders of Theosophical Society, Professors of Allahabad University and Swami Shyamanand Brahmachari - author, saint and living example of Vedantic outlook.

2. Christians - Dr. Appasamy, Dr. Presler, Rev. A.C. Chakravarty, Sri A. Nag, Rev. Savarimuthu, Dr. Miss Paranjothi, Dr. M.P. Davis, Mr. G.W. Maw, Dr. V.E. Devadutt, Dr. Immanuel, Father Fallon, Dr. M.D. Patial and R.C. Das.

5. Sessions of Study

First Session of the Institute of Banaras was held for three months, December 1939 to February 1940. In Banaras there have been sixteen institutes in fourteen years. Altogether over 225 students of all major denominations from all over the country have joined the courses in Banaras. They have represented different types of work such as evangelists, teachers, pastors, missionaries, theological students and a few laymen - of both the sexes. Besides regular students there have come many visitors and observers.

In addition to the Banaras Institute, sessions have been held in Landour (three times), Almora (several times), Leonard Theological College, Ewing Christian College, Bible Society (Allahabad), in Calcutta, Chandipur on the sea (Orissa) and Y.W.C.A. summer school in Mussoorie, in Cuttack, Orissa (twice).

All workers have served with zeal and at a sacrifice. There has been widespread interest in the entire Church. The leaders of the society have tried to put it on a sound footing financially and otherwise establish it on a permanent basis. With a view to this they asked the N.C.C. to recognise the society officially on the basis of a mutually agreed constitution (published in the Pilgrim of July 1946, Vol. VI, No. 2). But nothing came out of it for reasons not clear. Under the circumstances some of us are doing our utmost to advance the cause of the society under great handicaps. We need financial and other material resources such as space and room, literature, etc. We have zeal, energy, vision, and an amount of sacrificial spirit and scholarship in the Church to fulfil the purposes of the Society. We have been trying not merely to produce scholars but to help the average Christian worker among Hindus and to formulate a suitable Christian technique and apologetic. There is no dearth of students and trainees. The society is now 14 years old, and its quarterly journal is running its 13th year. One wishes and hopes: that the experience gathered over the years by so many who are concerned could be utilised for the evangelistic purposes of the Church.

Khristpanthi Ashram

R.C. DAS, 129, Dasashwamedh, Banaras.

April 1954

Prayer Section

In the Depths

    I look for a messenger from the Homeland,
    I wait for some news of the Beautiful One;
    Thou sees the silent mystery in my heart;
    Mine eyes rain tears;
    And this sorrow slays.

    Strewn with disorder is my house, for Thou art away, my love!
    And lost in Thy thought my mind hath wandered;
    To the things which are a hint and memory of Thy cruel mercy;
    Why art Thou long in coming;
    The very ruins of my house remember Thee.

    Comrades! did you but glimpse the Wonder I have worshipped.
    You would scatter your all in the search.
    Comrades! you must be ready to be drowned.
    To discover the Dweller in the Deep.
    Comrades! ye seek Him on the level road,
    Ye offer Him but a bit,
    Or the swollen lip-homage of little faith.

    The Flame in my Heart, who kindled it but Thy beauty
    Shining through the veil of my sufferings is Thy search.
    In many lands and many ages?
    The Flame burns; I will not quench it;
    Let it spend itself in Thy Quest.
    And in silent sorrow expire at Thy Feet.

    From the depths of my heart have I, cried to Thee, Come!
    In the depths of my anguish have I looked for Thy Face;
    All desire is sin save this: - to kiss the dust of Thy Feet,
    And be shielded by Thy Sacrificial love.
    O! look on my longing with favour,
    That I may meet thee in the Depths!

From an old and probably out of print book entitled Krishna’s Lute.

Helping Foreigners to Understand Hinduism

DR. HENRY H. PRESLER

Foreword

In May 1954 the Landour Language School, Mussoorie, U.P., requested me to give six lectures that might help foreigners to understand Hinduism. There was no way for me to obtain my files except by a thousand-mile journey in person during the heat of mid-May. So I sat down at my typewriter and wrote out one lecture per day for six days, using a few field works, and college notes brought with me for another purpose. This resulted in my seeing the woods rather than the trees, that is, in presenting some of the fundamentals of Hinduism in bold relief, rather than its details. My listeners said they were able to see clearly these few basic features and strongly urged me to preserve the remarks in print. Having had in mind a more thorough coverage, I at first demurred, but finally consented with the understanding that these six statements are not intended to provide a full introduction to Hinduism, a vast and interesting subject. Instead, they are intended to stimulate all of us foreigners to a more serious and painstaking study of the religions of the earnest and pious people of India.

H.H.P.

Department of Organised Research, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur, M.P.,

June 14, 1954.

Landour Language School Lectures

1. Hinduism

The title of this series of lectures is, “Helping Foreigners to Understand Hinduism”.

This title is broken down into ten definite helps, namely,

1. Help in understanding Indian cultural history.
2. Help in understanding the history of Hinduism.
3. Help in understanding Indian philosophies.
4. Help in understanding Indian philology.
5. Help in understanding Hindu mythology.
6. Help in understanding Hindu magic.
7. Help in understanding Hindu rituals.
8. Help in understanding the Hindu Trimurti.
9. Help in understanding the Five Daily Sacrifices.
10. Help in understanding Hindu Festivals.

Of these ten helps, it is not possible to deal with the first four in the time allowed. I mention them, however, because the first four are prerequisites to the last six, and necessary to any foreigner who would understand Hinduism. Furthermore, many books have been published concerning the first four. We have excellent political and cultural histories of India, by both European and Indian writers. Histories of Hinduism are essential and have been written chiefly by Europeans. The number of books on Indian philosophy is very large. A knowledge of the vernaculars and of Sanskrit is indispensable. These four helps are readily available and, we foreigners, who would understand Hinduism, should use them.

But not so much concern has been given to the last six helps, so I turn your attention to them: helps in understanding Hindu mythology, magic, ritual, trinity, sacrifices and festivals. Today we shall discuss Hindu mythology.

2. Mythology

As long as it is our privilege to discuss religion with Hindus we shall be dealing with their mythology. So I begin by asking, What is a myth? The popular answer is that a myth is fiction, having no foundation in fact. It is necessary to reject this popular answer if we would understand Hindu mythology, or any mythology.

We will give the answer of the Dictionary of Sociology, instead: ‘A myth is a traditional story of religious import, especially an account of the activities of supernatural beings.’ The value of this definition, seems to me, is that it enables one to approach the myths of any culture dispassionately, and with a view to understanding them.

One of the objects of our Research Department is to collect Hindu myths. During the last six years we have recorded hundreds of them, and you will hear hundreds yourself.

Some of these Hindu myths charm the foreigner, others make him laugh, and still others offend him. Let me give an example of each.

1. The myth that charms the foreigner.

   Once upon a time there was a Chamar, named Raidas. Although of very low caste, he was a renowned devotee of Gangamata, the goddess of the river Ganges. Gangamata was very pleased with the sincerity of this lowly man. She wished that men of higher caste were as genuine as he. One day Raidas was sitting on the bank of the sacred river desiring to offer a betel nut to the goddess, but, alas, he could not, being an Untouchable. Fortunately, a priest came that way, and, prostrating himself, Raidas begged the priest to take the betel nut and cast it into the water for him. At first the priest refused to have anything to do with Raidas. But the Chamar was so persistent that he took the betel nut gingerly and then carelessly tossed it towards the Ganges. As the betel nut travelled through, the air, and was about to fall into the water, behold, the goddess herself stretched forth her hand and caught the nut. While the onlookers stared in amazement, the goddess spoke saying, ‘For the betel nut of my disciple Raidas, I return a priceless pearl.’ She then threw the pearl to the very feet of Raidas. But the priest quickly captured the gem and made off with it. It was the most beautiful jewel Banaras had ever seen, and the priest presented it to the Queen of Rajputana who had come there on a pilgrimage. The queen was delighted to have it, but she immediately insisted there must be a twin pearl to match it, and she ordered the unfortunate priest to get the other, or be killed. The poor fellow immediately fell down at her feet and confessed he had stolen it from Raidas.

   So the queen, whose passion for the jewel got the better of her caste prejudices, went in search of the Chamar. She found him at work by his hovel, and implored Raidas to obtain the matched pearl. Raidas said he had no time for such material things, but the queen was importunate. So Raidas called for a lota of water, and placing it before him said, If the heart is pure, Gangamata will appear in water kept in a wooden pot. So saying he thrust his hand into the water of the lota and drew it out holding a pearl of the same size and beauty as the first one. The queen at once fell down on her face, and became the disciple of Raidas. Likewise, the members of Raidas’s own caste became his disciples, and even to this day call themselves Raidasis.

   There are many such charming myths current among Hindus picturing the sincere devotion of the pious devotee and replete with spiritual teaching.

2. The myth that makes the foreigner laugh.

   It is entitled, Why People Fear Ghosts. (Although this myth was told to me in Jabalpur, I have since learned that different versions of it are to be found in Travancore and in Gujarat.)

   An old Gond and his wife had a violent quarrel about their food. There were seven chapatis for supper, and the old woman said, “I have cooked them, so I should have more.” The old man said, “I have paid for them, so I should have more.” They quarrelled till they were exhausted and lay down to sleep, their supper still uneaten. At midnight the old man sat up and said, “Whoever speaks first will have three of the chapatis; whoever keeps silent longest, will have four.”

   Then they both lay down and kept silent. Not a word did they speak all night, and when dawn came they remained quiet. They stayed lying down all that day and the next, and then the neighbours asked, “What has happened?” and went to see. They opened the door of the house and saw man and wife lying silent on the ground. They called to them, but the pair uttered no word, and the people decided that they were dead and should be taken out to burial.

   Seven men came to carry them to the burial-ground, but when they were about to lower them in their graves, the old woman sat up, and said to her husband, “I will eat three; you eat four.” When the seven pall-bearers saw the corpse sit up and heard it speak, they supposed the old woman was referring to them. They thought she intended to eat three of themselves, and that the other corpse would consume four of themselves. So they ran for their lives. The old couple wondered what was the matter, and ran after them. The seven men reached the village crying that ghosts were coming to devour them, and so the people fled. The crowd rushed to the Police Station and reported the matter. The sub-inspector looked out of the window and saw the old man and the old woman streaming down the street; then he and his constables, too, ran for their lives. The terrified villagers and the constables and the sub-inspector went to report to the Raja and the Rani, and in two minutes the palace was deserted

   But by this time the old man and his wife were tired, so they went into the palace and stayed there, and spent the rest of their days in great comfort. And ever after this, the people of India have been afraid of ghosts.

   Of course, such a myth also amuses the Hindus themselves, and they love to tell it to their children, just as we foreigners recount similar tales to our little ones.

3. The myth that offends the foreigner.

All mythologies contain another class of myth about which it is difficult to speak. These myths may run counter to current moral codes, or seem to offend one’s sense of appropriateness, or embarrass him by mentioning without restraint certain of the excretory functions of the body, or the myths may disgust one with tales of incest and adultery. The mythologies of Europe and the Americas contain such myths, and any foreigner who rejects such is unable to face any mythology dispassionately, or scientifically. That Hinduism should contain this class of myth does not make it the exception, but the rule.

I have decided to risk your displeasure by recounting one such myth. You might as well become accustomed to this class of myth also, since you will hear many such in the course of your career in India. I have chosen one of the least objectionable in this class, and have left out many of the details, out of respect for your sensibilities. Please bear with me, because I am trying to help you to understand Hindu mythology.

The title of this myth is, Why Baiju is worshipped first, and is told in one of our local temples. The problem in this myth is set by the fact of the great distance between Ceylon, where Ravana and his mother lived, and the residence of Shiva up here somewhere in the Himalaya mountains at Kailash.

Long ago When Rawana lived in Ceylon, his aged mother felt she could not make the long journey to Kailash for a darshan or beatific vision of Shiva and Parvati. She told her difficulty to her son, Rawana. While Rawana was pondering what to do, somebody said to him, “You have such great strength that you could take up the whole mountain of Kailash with Shiva and Parvati on it, and you could carry it across India all the way to Ceylon and set it down here. Then your poor mother could worship the gods at this very spot.” No sooner spoken than Rawana started for Kailash. He crossed India in a few bounds and soon was at the foot of the holy mountain. Rawana took hold of the mountain and lifted it up as if it had been a small stone. This caused the palace of Shiva to feel as if an earthquake were underway. Shiva cried out, “What is the matter? How is it that the whole mountain is shaking?” His wife, Parvati, replied, “It must be due to the bhakti of some of your devotees.” Then Narad came rushing in and told them that Rawana had resolved to carry the two of them to Ceylon. Narad exclaimed, “If he takes you down there, we gods will find much difficulty because Rawana is a demon, and a fight between us gods and the hosts of demons will follow.”

So Shiva came out and said to Rawana, “I am very pleased with you, but why do you want to carry us down to Lanka?” Rawana said, “My mother wants to worship you, but she is too old to come up here; so I must take you down there.” Hearing this Shiva said, “Because of her devotion, I must submit, but on one condition, namely, that you carry me and my mountain there at one stretch. Don’t put us down on the ground under any circumstances, or you will fail again to lift me up.”

So Rawana accepted the condition and started off. Then Vishnu, who had been prompted by Shiva, interfered. He caused Rawana to feel a great urgency to go aside on a private occasion. In this extremity Rawana met an ahir or cowherd, and thinking that all ahirs are strong men, he begged him to hold up the mountain for a moment. The ahir, whose name was Baiju, said, “I cannot do that because the weight of the mountain is very great.” But Rawana, who by now was beside himself with discomfort, said, “You have your wooden stick; put it across your shoulder as a lever, and I will hang the mountain on one end.” No sooner had he said this, than Rawana deposited the mountain, Shiva, Parvati, the palace and all, on the ahir’s stick. Then Rawana rushed off to answer the call of nature.

As soon as Rawana had gone aside, Baiju turned around north and made off with his holy burden and after much exertion retired to the original site in the Himalayas, and put down the mountain of Kailash with Shiva and all. The gods were overjoyed to have their king back again, and said, “From henceforth Baiju shall be worshipped first.” And, say the people of Jabalpur, that is why you see Bajju here in our temple with a stick across his shoulder, and that is why we worship him first.

Now these three, classes of myth do not exhaust Hindu mythology by any means. There are cosmological myths, there are creation myths, there are theological myths. There are myths accounting for the origin of this and that custom. There are short myths, and there is a myth to which I listened from three o’clock in the afternoon to within fifteen minutes of my supper hour. And the question is, What is the foreigner to make of these myths?

Is he to turn from them in bewilderment? Is he to dismiss them merely as primitive fiction, worthy of no serious thought? Is he to be offended by them or embarrassed? Is he to be charmed by them?

I would say, after an experience in India beginning in 1937, that too many of us foreigners out here fail to use mythology to increase our understanding of Hinduism. It is high time that we avail ourselves of this valuable clue, that we examine the whole subject of Hindu mythology afresh.

Fortunately, the mythology has received attention from a number of careful thinkers. Who have been convinced that it serves some function in human society, else why would there be so much of it? In the minutes remaining to me, I want to lay before you some of their theories.

First: There is the theory of an Indian scholar of the previous generation, named, S.C. Roy. Mr. Roy started out in the Indian Civil Service, was sent to Bihar and Bengal, and began to trade stories with the villagers. He became a connoisseur of Hindu myths, and reflected about as follows:

The myth, said Mr. Roy, is merely a form of recreation. One of the few amusements available to the villagers, in their hard and strenuous lives, is the myth. After the day’s work is done, the men, especially the old men, love to sit around the fire and “spin a yarn,” and to impart their skills and entertainment values in the form of idle stories.

This shallow view of myth might have been expected from one of us Westerners, but hardly from an Indian. It only shows how far away from understanding Hinduism some of the educated Hindus have drifted. No, there is far more in any mythology than a mere joke.

Second: There is the theory of two careful French scholars, one a clergyman named Abbe Banier and the other a professor named Lempriere. They said, in brief, that a myth is a piece of inaccurate history clothed in symbolical language. In other words, there was some actual historical event that really happened, but the myth has overladen that event with fantasy. What you have to do, according to Abbe Banier, is to see beneath the fantasy to the kernel of historic fact.

Personally, I would be pleased if more of us foreigners would take at least this view of Hindu mythology. More of us would be inclined to search in the myth for some hidden meaning, for some clue to actual history. We would at least be of the opinion that the strange myth might teach us something about the noble people of this country.

But while this view (that myth is a bit of history clothed in fantasy) offers us a positive proposition, it is unsatisfactory. For no two interpreters of the same myth ever succeed in reconstructing the vanished history. Too much is left to the imagination of the outsiders. They end up about where they started, not knowing much more about Hinduism.

Third: There is the theory of nature symbolism, that has dominated so much German scholarship. According to this view, a myth is a speculative symbolisation of natural phenomena. All mythology is held to reproduce the phenomena of nature under hidden figures of speech. For instance, here is a Hindu myth to explain the seasons. (See Verrier Elwin, Myths of Middle India.)

The moon was eating a roasted bel fruit, and the sun asked the moon, “What is that you are eating?” The moon replied, “I am eating my own children.” “Then give me a little.” The sun ate the bel fruit and found it sweet. Pleased with this the sun ate all his own children, except one which ran away like the lightning. The sun was angry at being deceived and cursed the moon saying, “You will always have to be living and dying,” and this is why the moon waxes and wanes. But the moon cursed the sun in return and caused one of the sun’s eyes to break; that is why the sun has only one eye. For eight months of the year the sun does not wash its eye and the season is cold; then it wipes away the dirt and pus, and the season gets very hot.

Now if we students of Hindu mythology were to follow this theory we would make four grave errors. First, we would make the mistake of assuming that all Hindu myths are related to the forces of nature. Again, we would suppose that myth making is only by allegory. Again, we would ignore the fact that human life can suggest such tales without reference to natural bodies. It may be that some of the doctrines of Hinduism have their origin in myths, that are in turn based upon the stars in their courses. But let us not fall into the trap of assuming that most Hindu myths are to be so understood.

Fourth: Still other scholars have said that the Hindu myth is an attempt to explain or make intelligible certain abstract ideas. According to this view, Hindu myths are primarily etiological. The people of India desired to explain their world in simple terms taken from the human and animal world, using narrative forms. The conclusions of the myths are held to be the most significant elements in the myth.

If one were to be persuaded of this view, he would listen to each myth carefully and respectfully, and then look for the abstract doctrine the myth is supposed to teach. He would insist that the abstract doctrine was what called the myth into being, not vice versa.

But the trouble with this view is that it is too intellectualistic. The masses of India are not all philosophers. In fact, my experience with the common people of Jabalpur would lead me to suspect that not one in fifty is a philosopher. There are relatively few Indians who are dealing in abstractions.

A further criticism was demonstrated by a scholar named Waterman. He undertook to collect Hindu myths supposed to explain abstract ideas, and travelled over wide areas and into five of the provinces. He discovered that the plot of the same myth was relatively stable from Travancore to the Punjab, but that the acts they were supposed to explain and from which they are supposed to have originated, varied widely. The same myth told in ten different tribes was used to explain ten different problems.

If we foreigners are to use the myth to understand Hinduism, we shall have to pass by this view that a myth is a device to explain an abstract doctrine.

Fifth: Another popular view is that a myth is simply the result of human imagination. I have heard foreigners criticise Hindu myths by terming them mere “cock-and-bull stories.” According to this view somebody sat down and let his imagination run riot. Exaggeration is implicit in imagination; distance and time are annihilated, and stars and beasts are personalised. All of this is propelled by the wishes of the individual who invented the myth.

We shall pass this one by as not worthy of serious consideration. If the people of India had any such idea about their myths they would have dropped them long ago. Such an explanation gives us no clues to the reality that is Hinduism.

Sixth: A very promising view, in my opinion, is that of the Englishman, Sir James Frazer, who emphasised the connection between myth and magic. I feel that this lead ought to be followed out by some of us in India. Let me quote Frazer.

“We shall assume,” he says, “that many myths once had their counterpart in magic; in other words; that they used to serve as a means of producing in fact the events they describe in figurative language. Ceremonies often die out while myths survive, and thus we are left to infer the dead ceremony from the living myth.”

Frazer’s observation is very fruitful, it seems to me. For in my own studies of Hindu magic I have noticed a close association between the actions of the magician’s spell, and the words he speaks. In other words, every charm or spell is accompanied by the magic mantras or by the magic myth. The spell and the myth work together, according to the Hindu belief, and one without the other cannot succeed. But anybody knows that it is easier to remember the myth than the ritual, and in the natural course of events, many myths would outlive their rituals. Men would remember the story, but they would forget the ritual.

Our task with some of the myths in Hinduism may be to discover the magic spell with which it is associated. But we will err if we try to associate all myths with magic, or even most myths with magic. There is a possibility that some Hindu myths are linked with Hindu magic.

Seventh: There is another theory of myth that requires to be mentioned, if only to deny it. I fear that we foreigners sometimes incline towards this interpretation of Hindu myth, even though it is untenable. I refer to the theory put forth by the psycho-analysts. These people see the world through Freudian eyes. To them Hindu mythology portrays the sexual processes.

It is easy for us foreigners to fall into this error, because we are shocked and dismayed by the ling and yoni seen in so many temples, and by some of the rare aberrations of Hinduism like the Nepali temple at Banaras, or like some of the sakti temples of Bengal.

However, if we think of Hindu mythology only in Freudian terms, we are in danger of making ourselves ridiculous. For instance, one psycho-analyst was asked to interpret a myth told in one of the districts west of Dehra Dun. He said that the interpretation of the myth was very easy, namely, a father conflict. Then he quoted Freud to prove this point. But his listeners could scarcely keep from laughing at him, because the society in that district is matrilineal, in which all authority is vested in the mother’s brother, and the father has little significance.

I would like to warn us foreigners that the Freudian interpretation of Hindu mythology may be in most cases, untrue and unkind. If we are to dismiss Hindu mythology in this wise, we are not only blinding ourselves to its meaning, but our Hindu brothers may think we are simply revealing ourselves and what is in our hearts.

So far I have been trying to show you that serious scholars are honestly concerned with Hindu mythology. A great deal of time and thought has been given to the subject. Many books have been written trying to show how mythology may become one of the keys to unlock the meaning of Hinduism. Yet none of the theories so far presented can be called satisfactory. They may be adequate to some myths but not to most of them, or they may be altogether unsatisfactory.

Now let me come to the theory which seems to me to be most useful to us foreigners. This is the view of the Oxford University professor who trained a generation of British colonial administrators. There was a time when all English administrators entering foreign service were required to sit under Prof. Bronislow Malinowski. Some of the best India Government publications on the tribes, castes and religions of India have been written by colonial administrators following his view, which, in brief, is this:

It is a waste of time to try to account for the origin of myths. There is no one origin, but a complex of influences producing a myth, and the record of those influences cannot be any longer seen or traced. Attempting to unravel origins is conjecture.

But, myths actually function in present-day society. Behaviour and attitudes become more articulate in folklore than in any other cultural trait; the myth tends to crystallise and perpetuate the forms of culture that it makes articulate. This is especially true with regard to religion, which is largely unintelligible without reference to mythology.

The myth supports the current etiquette. If you ask the average Hindu to tell you his code of manners, he cannot do so; he is not accustomed to codifying his etiquette. But through his myths you will learn his etiquette. The myth defines his moral system, tells what is proper and what is sin. The myth describes the accepted occupational pursuit. It concretises the forms that are locally favoured or insisted upon, and reveals the sanctions of the group. The behaviour toward the poor the treatment of the elder generation by the younger, and innumerable other points of ethics are in this way reinforced and perpetuated by the mythology of the group.

The myth is a social fact, an expression by a group of its own attitudes and cultural life.

The myth is not a relic of the past but a living reality, vitalising and to some extent controlling the present.

“When a Baiga, for instance, is summoned to control a man-eating tiger, he faces this dangerous task with the more courage, because he knows that the duty has been his from the very beginning. When he comes to perform magic to Dharti Mata he recites the myth of the beginning of his magic, and glorifies his part in it. When he is overwhelmed by his own poverty, he comforts himself and his family by reminding them that to be poor and to live close to the earth was the voluntary choice of his great ancestors, their glory and not their shame. The driving of a nail, the offering of animal sacrifice, the cutting of bewar, the worship of Thakur Deo, the cure of disease, the war against witchcraft, the shame of barrenness, all trace their origin to mythology, and so become fixed in current practice.”

“These myths are not just interesting stories tacked on to the rings of Baiga life; they are alive; every one of them is continually being put into action. The myth makes everything contemporary. (Myths of Middle India.)

This means that we foreigners can use the myth to reveal to us how the Hindu is expected to think and act today. In other words, the myth pretends to tell what happened in the past, but we shall consider it an actual photograph of what happens today. Thus, the great myth known as the Ramayana, purports to be a description of two legendary figures of long ago. We need not concern ourselves with whether Ram and Sita ever lived, nor as to the truth of the account. But we shall use this myth to describe to us how the ideal Hindu wife is expected to conduct herself, today, and as a description of the male character that millions of Hindus admire today.

The myth is therefore a description of contemporary Hinduism. The Hindu friend who tells you a charming myth, or what seems at first-hearing a humorous myth, or an offensive myth, and if he himself sincerely believes it, is perforce opening out the content of his own mind and heart to you. He is describing for you in figurative language, his own life’s pattern, his own code of morals, his beliefs and his practices.

If you want to understand the Hinduism of your village, as it operates today, start collecting the village myths.

Thus: In the first myth on How the Chamar Found Favor with Gangamata, we have an actual photograph of the Raidasis of Jabalpur today. The myth describes how they live apart, in untouchable bustis. The myth reveals the psychology of a depressed class people, with its antagonism towards the Brahmin whose Sanskrit and rituals are beyond their comprehension. The myth accurately describes their religion today, a form of pure bhakti expressed in fervid singing. The myth contains no temple, and the Raidasi busti in which it was told, has no temple, because of their belief that “if the heart is pure” the goddess appears unto them in an earthen bowl. This myth accurately describes the modern Chamar community, of Jabalpur. We foreigners should use the myth to understand contemporary Hinduism. Let us not waste our time debating its credibility, or its historicity.

Again, the second myth on Why People Fear Ghosts, accurately describes the current attitudes towards the dead. Our city is replete with the sacred graves of Sidh babas, Phalwan babas, Aghori babas, and Mohammedan Pirs. The Cult of the Dead seems to overflow the boundaries of religions, so that Muslims worship Hindu graves, and Hindus worship Muslim graves. Many a man will sometimes snicker at local ghost stories. When the sun is shining brightly and the mazar or grave is surrounded by the hustle and bustle of commerce, he jests about the dead. But let him come down that same street at midnight, let him be alone and forlorn, then his startled eyes will behold a white apparition, rising from the grave in wrath at his earlier jesting, and the terrified individual will fall upon his face unconscious, or fly screaming down the side gully. In other words, the myth paints a true picture of the contemporary behaviour toward the ghosts of saints and pirs, in Jabalpur today.

Finally, the third myth not only describes the indifference of the modern Hindu to exercising the excretory functions wherever he may be (also true in some parts of Europe), but it goes much farther in staging the current antagonism between the South and the North. The antipathy of some Madrasis to our national language is in this myth. The location of the seat of power in the land, of the northern Aryans is in this myth. The theology of Hindu polytheism is in this myth. The rather high status of the ahirs is here, as well as their reputed strength and piety. And, were we to interpret this myth on Why Baiju is Worshipped First in psycho-analytical terms only, we would be blinding ourselves to its wider meanings. We would fail to see the living reality it portrays.

I close with this admonition. If you understood Hinduism, consider every myth as a picture of present social reality.

3. Magic

The subject for today is, Hindu magic. By Hindu magic I do not mean the excellent sleight-of-hand tricks seen in an Indian theatre, which are intended to entertain the audience by mystifying it. For magic in this sense, we, in our Research Department, use the Hindi word, Jadu. And for the magician whose aim is to entertain, we use the word, Jadugar. We tell people that we are not interested in Jadu.

Rather, by Hindu magic we mean that combination of myth and ritual intended to control events by manipulating supposed relations of cause and effect. For magic in this sense we use such terms as Jhar Phoonk, and Toni Vidya, because these are the terms in common circulation among Jabalpur Hindus. For magician in this sense, we use such terms as Gunia, and Ojha and Panda (as contrasted to pandit), for such designations are given by our population, although they are not careful to distinguish within what these functionaries do, between the magical and the religious.

In Hinduism magic and religion are usually combined. Both are found intertwined throughout the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Puranas. Both are inextricably mixed together in contemporary Hinduism, so that an example of pure magic is rare. I propose to read for you here, my field work notes concerning a case of pure Hindu magic. The gunia is telling me how he cures snake-bites by Hindu magic alone.

Gunia: There are many kinds of magic, but all use some devi’s power except snake magic. In snake magic only mantras (sacred utterances) are used. If anybody comes to me for help in curing snake-bite. I have to go immediately, for snake-bite is serious. I have to stop eating instantly, and get up and go.

Question: What do you take with you?

Gunia: Nothing whatever. No camphor, no incense, no offerings … all such are for devis. I just go, but if I want to carry some food along to eat on the way, I may do so.

Question: How long does the victim live usually?

Answer: From one to two hours, if bitten by a cobra. His pulse slowly recedes towards his heart, so that you can find out how bad off a patient is by noting where the pulse can be detected. He may be partially conscious or unconscious.

Question: Well, now suppose that a victim lives more than two hours away? You could not reach him in time to save his life. Suppose you have no cycle or tonga to take you there quickly. What would be the use of your going to him?

Gunia: There is some use. We gunias can “hold him”, that is, we can say a magic mantra that will arrest his case. He will stop and remain as he is. Neither will he get better, nor ‘worse.’ Very powerful magicians can hold a victim for six months, but I with my magic can hold him for only eight days. If the location is far away, then I say the mantras immediately, and the victim is suspended between life and death until my arrival. But in saying my mantras, I have to state the amount of time required for holding the patient, or the mantras won’t work. Then, if there is any delay, the spell is broken and the man may die before my arrival.

Question: But suppose that it takes more than two hours for the informant to summon you. The victim would already be dead before he arrives.

Gunia: No. There is a way to get around this. If the messenger coming to me realises the dilemma, then he should tie a knot in his chotiya (tuft of hair on the back of a caste man’s head), and that will hold the victim until he arrives to give me the summons. Upon getting the news, I will say my magic mantras to hold the victim until my arrival there. The messenger need not know any mantras, but just ties his chotiya, in the name of the magician to be informed.

Question: Then what?

Gunia: Then I go. Upon arriving I always find a crowd of people, and ask them, “Have you killed the very snake that bit this man?” if they say ‘Yes’, then I cannot do anything further. But if they say, ‘No’, then I tell them, Do not kill that snake. Just keep quiet and don’t move. Then I sit down and say my mantras to myself, and as I say them I blow them out in all directions, so that some of the mantras go to where that snake is. The mantras compel the snake to come from wherever he is, and in spite of all the people present, he will squirm into the midst of where the victim lies. He will then fasten on to the bitten place and suck back the poison. He withdraws the poison from the wound, and the victim revives and gets up, saved. No special order need be given to the snake; my mantras make him do this. When the snake is finished, we let it go away safely.

****Question****: Do people call you for any kind of snakebite?

Gunia: They may, but it is not necessary. My magic is needed only for a cobra bite. If any other kind of snake bites a man, that man will live anyway.

Now, before analysing such toni vidya, I would like to enlarge your perspective with other types of toni vidya as found in Jabalpur.

1. First, there is urdna tona. Urdna means fly away. They say, udrke lagta, meaning, “upon flying up, the charm works”. The procedure may be here mentioned, but I ask you to bear in mind what was said yesterday in the lecture on Hindu Mythology, about ignoring our foreign sensibilities. The procedure for urdna tona is as follows: The gunia passes his own faeces, and mixes it with clay. From the mixture he makes an idol and worships it. The next step is to verbalise or utter some mantras before the idol and cause the very mantras to set down before the idol. When the person to be attacked comes along the way, the gunia blows the mantras in his direction. The mantras pass into the victim’s body and induce sickness. His face alters, his stomach goes awry, and his blood becomes impure. But urdna tona does not kill. It can be cured by jhar phoonk, to be described later.

2. Second, there is marna tona. Marna means to strike or hit someone or something. Gond women know this kind. They come to the bazaar from the villages to sell wild fruits. They squat on the ground and spread their products out for inspection. One should not talk to them very long when bargaining. If they get displeased, they will say, ham dekhlenge (we will see or stare). They will stare at the customer and by this means their mantras will be forced into that unwilling buyer’s body. There is nothing he can do. He will begin to lose weight and slowly his body will appear to dissolve into nothing, just as salt dissolves in water. However, if taken early, this misfortune can be stopped by jhar phoonk. Otherwise, he will die in from four to five months.

People tell me there are many other kinds of toni vidya.

Now let us turn to jhar phoonk. Jhar Phoonk is counteractive magic. It neutralises. It does not do good. It does not do bad. It stops whatever magic has been worked against you. So far I have found out several kinds of this counteractive magic.

1. Jhar phoonk to neutralise male and female evil spirits. The male spirit is called bhut and the female evil spirit is called churailin. So this kind is termed, bhut churailin jar phoonk.

2. Jhar phoonk to neutralise a scorpion bite, called bichchhu jhar phoonk.

3. Jhar phoonk to stop the effect of the evil eye, called nazar jhar, phoonk.

4. Jhar phoonk against diseases, called nikasi jhar phoonk.

And, there are many other varieties of counteractive magic.

I HOPE NOW that enough has been said to illustrate what is meant by Hindu magic, namely, a combination of myth and ritual intended to control events by manipulating SUPPOSED relations of cause and effect.

We proceed by asking, in Hindu magic, what are these supposed relations of cause and effect? Unless we become familiar with these assumed relations, we shall not be able to comprehend the part that magic plays in Hinduism.

The first principle underlying Hindu magic is the supposed relationship between like things. The Hindus take it for granted that things which are alike, must have some effect upon each other. Let me illustrate with the Cure for Jaundice given in the Yajur Veda.

Our ancient magicians noticed, of course, that the victim of jaundice became overspread with a yellow colour. They reasoned that it would take a yellow creature to attract yellow colour out of the human being. So they used three yellow birds, or birds with some yellow feathers, namely, the yellow parrot, the yellow thrush, and the yellow wagtail. Such birds were tied near the patient. Then the magician recited the following: “Into the parrots, into the thrush, do we put thy jaundice, and furthermore, into the yellow wagtail do we put thy jaundice.” The idea was that the yellow of the birds would attract the yellow from the jaundice on the principle that like effects like.

While uttering this spell, the magician, in order to infuse into the patient the rosy hue of health, caused him to drink a mixture of water and red hairs taken from a bull. He also poured water over the back of the red bull, during the ritual, and catching that water had the patient drink it.

Then, in order to thoroughly improve his colour by thoroughly eradicating the yellow jaundice, the magician poured a mixture of yellow turmeric over the patient, and then wiped off the same, giving it to the yellow birds to eat. After that, he untied the birds and caused them to fly away. At last to give a final bloom to the patient he took some more hairs from the red bull, wrapped them in a leaf, and glued them to the patient’s skin.

Here you have illustrated the first basic relationship supposed to exist between like and like. You will find that a large portion of Hindu magic is based upon this assumption.

To lighten this presentation, let me give you one more illustration of the magic principle of like producing like. An Indian from Bihar told me that when a man goes wooing at night, he takes a little earth from a grave, and throws it on the roof of the hut in which his sweetheart is waiting. This has the effect of causing her parents to remain as fast asleep as the dead, on the principle that as the dead sleep beneath the sod, so deep slumber the living sleep. Then, while the girl’s parents are in deep slumber, he may call upon his beloved and chat with her late into the night, and with no fear of being overheard. The young swains of Jabalpur have not yet learned this use of magic!

The second principle underlying Hindu magic is the supposed relationship between things once in contact with each other, but no longer in contact with each other. The assumption is, that things which have once been conjoined must remain ever afterwards, even when quite dissevered from each other, in such a sympathetic relation that whatever is done to the one must similarly affect the other.

I will give two illustrations of this principle from Jabalpur magic. One of the attractions in our city for a student of Hinduism, is the sacred Narbudda River, flowing within five miles of our Municipal boundary. Every year thousands of Hindus trek at stated festival days, to bathe in the sacred waters. Stores of barbers line the banks to give, the first haircut to the new crop of babies. Why not cut the baby’s hair at home? The reason is that hair once cut off is always in contact with that baby, no matter if severed. And, if some enemy were to get possession of that first hair, he could kill the baby. For instance, he might burn the hair, which would cause the baby to be accidentally burnt. Or he might cut it, and the baby would soon suffer a mortal wound. Therefore, the hair is cast into the sacred river and borne away to far distant places where no enemy can obtain possession of it.

The second illustration of this principle that things once in contact with each other are always in contact with each other, I take from Jabalpur Kols. As soon as the baby is born, the father takes possession of the placenta and of the navel cord. It is his duty to bury them inside his own house underneath the ground at some spot known only to him. For such is the last place to which any enemy could ever gain access. There is always somebody around the house to sound a note of alarm, and to prevent a magician’s getting access to the placenta. To the Kols it is obvious that the placenta, once in contact with the newborn babe, remains in contact with the babe in so vital a relationship that magic performed upon the placenta inevitably affects the child.

These, then, are the two fundamental relationships supposed to exist within Hindu magic: the relation between like and like, and the relation between separated portions which were once conjoined together. To review, if you throw grave dust over her house, her parents will sleep soundly as like produces like. And, if you kill the snake that bit the victim, the victim will die; nothing can be done about him; for, the snake, which was once in contact with the victim, is always in contact with the victim; if you kill the snake you automatically have killed the man.

I PROCEED WITH MY ARGUMENT BY ASKING: What are foreigners to think of Hindu magic?

Too many of us foreigners have never tried to understand it. We have relegated Hindu magic to the realm of the incomprehensible. We have not known what to say about it, what to think about it. We have made derogatory remarks about it, the most frequently recurring being this, these people are ignorant so what can you expect?

In the time remaining I should like to defend those Hindus who believe in magic against this charge of ignorance. I am not defending magic, but I am defending the people who believe in it.

The first thing to be said is that there is plenty of magic in our foreign cultures. They tell me that in Sussex (I do not know if this be true), the maid servants are against throwing away the child’s first tooth on the ground that the second tooth coming to take its place in the child, will resemble the tooth of any animal that might chance to gnaw on the first one. Thus, if an ant should find the tooth and eat away at it, the child’s second tooth would be small and stunted; whereas, if a pig should chance on it, the second tooth would be large and ugly like a pig’s tooth.

However, this may be in Sussex, I know that you cannot find a hotel in America with the number thirteen. I know some American farmers who nail horseshoes above their doors, and carry rabbit’s feet in their pockets, to get good luck. As a matter of fact, there is magic in every culture of the world so far studied.

The second defence of these friends in India who believe in magic, is that they are not ignorant. They may be illiterate, but not ignorant. In fact, a basic assumption in our Research Department is that every normal adult in India is well-educated. He is so well-educated that he can raise food from ground that is either baked hard as rock or inundated by a flood, and that is more than I know how to do. He is so well-educated that he can master many of his diseases by using herbs and barks which is more than I know. He is so well-educated that he can control his children and raise them up in the way he thinks they should go, and it remains to be seen whether I know that much. He can trace back his ancestors through many generations, but the average foreigner does not know the names of his great-grandfather on his mother’s side. We better be careful about calling our Hindu friends uneducated, or ignorant.

The third defence necessary if we foreigners are to understand Hindu magic, is the realisation that the psychological process supporting magic is one that we ourselves experience. A Hindu, for instance, is engaged in some activity, and he comes to a gap. The hunter is disappointed by his quarry, the farmer fails to get rain, the healthy person suddenly gets sick. What does man do naturally under such conditions? Forsaken by his knowledge, baffled by his want of technical skill, he realises his impotence. Yet his desire grips him all the more strongly. His anxiety, his fears and hopes, induce a tension in his organism that drives him to some sort of activity. Whether he is Occidental or Oriental, whether in possession of magic or entirely ignorant of its existence, the last thing he will do is to remain passive. His nervous system and his whole organism drive him to some substitute activity. Obsessed by the idea of the desired end, he sees it and feels it. His organism reproduces the acts suggested by the anticipations of his hope, dictated by overwhelming emotion, SO HE IMITATES THE DESIRED END.

The man under the sway of impotent fury or dominated: by thwarted hate, spontaneously clenches his fist and carries out imaginary thrusts at his enemy, muttering imprecations, casting words of hatred and anger against him. The anxious hunter sees in his imagination the quarry enmeshed in the nets; he utters the names of the fishes, describes in words his visions of a magnificent catch, or remembers the tale of past successes.

AND, THE WORDS THAT EXPLODE UNDER HIS EMOTION, THE GESTURES THAT EXPRESS HIS ANXIETY, tend to spend the tension within him. Somehow he feels better. The desired end seems nearer satisfaction. He remains with a conviction that the words said, and the gestures enacted, have travelled towards the hated person and hit their target. He feels that the visionary response of his beloved cannot remain unanswered. “IN BRIEF, A STRONG EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE, WHICH SPENDS ITSELF IN A PURELY SUBJECTIVE FLOW OF IMAGES, WORDS AND ACTS OF BEHAVIOUR, LEAVES A VERY DEEP CONVICTION OF REALITY, AS IF SOME PRACTICAL AND POSITIVE ACHIEVEMENT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED.” just as you and I feel better after kicking the chair over which we stumbled in the dark. One of our best-known missionary doctors in India told me that this psychological mechanism is the same in connection with the patients brought to his hospital. His words were, “If I gave salt and water to 75% of my patients, and did nothing else for them, they would get well. Three-fourths of the people who come to me are worried about their physical condition, and are impelled to go through the drama of hospitalisation, which in itself cures them”. I read that the same thing is true of two out of three patients seeking hospitalisation in America. They feel they must do something, and the little drama of a white bed, a clinical thermometer, and the smell of antiseptics, do the trick. We foreigners ought not to blame the Hindu for requiring the same psychological experience.

The fourth defence necessary if we would understand Hindu magic, is that its logic is absolutely respectable. Granted the assumptions of magic (which I do not grant), there is nothing wrong with the thinking of those who believe in Hindu magic. They think just as conformably to the canons of logic as anybody. We vastly underrate their intelligence and grasp on experience if we assume that the Hindu is unaware of failures in magic. He knows well enough that magic does not always work, but that does not seem to him any reason for disbelieving in it. One magician said to me, “Some people, who go to hospitals die there, but you foreigners continue to go to hospitals. Our magic does not always work, but by analogy with you, we also do not stop working magic.”

When magic fails the Hindus have logical explanations. They say that firstly, magic is surrounded by strict conditions; exact remembrance of a spell, unimpeachable performance of the rite, unswerving adhesion to the taboos and observances, are essential. If anyone of these is neglected, failure of magic follows. In the case of disappointment, the Hindu simply says, The magician made some mistake, so what can I expect?

Further, even if magic be done in the most perfect manner, its effects can be equally well undone: for against every magic there can also be counter-magic. For every phase of toni vidya there is a form of jhar phoonk. In certain types of disease magic, the mantras actually go in couplets, depending on whether you want to infect or cure. This means that no matter how well you try magic, your enemy may counter with the opposite magic. Therefore, it is not the magic that is at fault, but human interference.

The logic of magic also includes the assumption that various forms of it are strong and other forms are weak. I remember talking to a Koree magician, who was telling me what he could accomplish. He said he could cure people of malaria, head cold, and dysentery. Then I pointed to his foot which was up in the air on a stool, paining with gout. I asked, Why don’t you fix your foot then? He said, Oh my magic is not strong enough for that,

Further, in defence of the people who believe in magic (notice I am not defending magic) I would like to point out that magic often seems to work, simply by the mathematical laws of chance. If, for instance, you flip a coin one hundred times it will come to rest with its head up about fifty times, and the other fifty times with tail up. Similarly, if you perform a magic spell one hundred times and notice what, transpires thereafter, you will find that the magic seems to work at least fifty times out of a hundred and probably more. Suppose, for example, you take one hundred sick men and perform magic against each man’s sickness. Six weeks later you will find that at least fifty men are still alive, which would have been the case had you not performed the spells. But the believer in magic attributes the fifty recoveries to the magic. The chances are very good that not fifty but that 85 men out of a hundred will still be alive. Now the point I am trying to make is that those who believe in magic are not just theorising; they think they have empirical evidence in their favour. This insistence upon evidence for one’s belief is the same insistence that we foreigners make. We must therefore credit in others what we insist upon for ourselves, and admit that, once you grant the premises of magic, the thinking based upon it is sound, not fallacious.

There are still other considerations to bear in mind. One is, that in human memory anywhere, the testimony of a positive case always overshadows the negative one. One gain easily outweighs several losses. The instances which affirm magic always loom more conspicuously than those which deny it. William James called this “The Will to Believe”. You see, the men who got well after a magic spell are alive and telling about it; but the men for whom magic did not work, are dead; they can’t say anything. The result is that Hinduism is always overweighted with positive testimonies in favour of magic. My estimate is that about one in forty is disillusioned with magic, and thirty-nine out of forty are crediting the fact they are still alive to what the magician did. When there are 39 votes in favour, and only one against, we foreigners can scarcely blame the masses for being favourably predisposed.

Again, it is simply a fact that the outstanding personalities in the average Hindu community are either priests or magicians. Skill in magic corresponds with force of personality. The magician generally has more skill, courage and mental power than his clients. He is an all-around man. He has “what it takes”. His influence pervades the society. Men defer to him in any connection, being overawed by his radiating personality. He believes in magic, and throws the full weight of his prestige and status in its favour. Naturally it follows that everybody else believes in toni vidya. (And here I would like to insert the caution against slander. These magicians are not knaves and robbers in most cases. They are sincere men, honestly believing what they say and practice. We foreigners make a serious blunder by questioning their motives. They may be mistaken, but they are not rogues.) (We also betray our monetary civilisation if we think most Hindu magicians are greedy for gain. In our town the magicians generally refuse payment unless their magic appears to “work”. On the contrary, these functionaries are caught in the world view being described and are acting in conformity with it, that is all.)

Finally, I would defend these people against the criticism of us foreigners, because they have been educated in the mythology of magic. Around every successful magician there arises a kind of halo made up of stories about his wonderful curse or blessing, his catches, his victories, his conquests. These myths are told to the children by their elders and form the backbone of belief. Their plastic minds are caught in the web of legend, moulded and fixed. The function of these myths is not to analyse magic as I am doing, but to vouch for it, not to satisfy curiosity but to give confidence in magic power. These myths do for them what our histories do to us, namely, precondition belief in any proposition however erroneous.

In summary, we foreigners had better realise that our Hindu friends have been moulded by a series of concentric influences. They are well-educated in magic. They have been turned towards magic by the same psychological processes that we ourselves experience. Once you grant the assumptions of magic, the logic supporting it is according to the same canons of thinking we practice. That logic accounts for any failure that may appear on the surface. That logic appeals to apparent successes as evidences. A host of living witnesses testify to the success of Jhar Phoonk quite unaware of the laws of chance and their testimonies are reinforced by outstanding personalities and glorious myths. In other words, these concentric forces from all sides create a kind of universe of discourse in which the thinking is orderly and consistent. When you see this clearly, it is impossible to speak disparagingly about men who are caught in that little universe. We foreigners need not agree with them; but we must respect them.

To my way of thinking, the logic of magic is so strong as to be unassailable. It is not possible, in my opinion, to argue against it, depending upon reason alone. The magician has an answer for everything you say. The only rock upon which magic breaks up, is on the rock of prediction. I mean to say, that in magic you can predict that there is a fifty-fifty chance that the spell will seem to work. In modern science you can predict a very much higher percentage of success. People will leave magic only when they learn that science is more dependable. They leave it not because they have been argued out of it, but because they have found something better. I say this on the basis of experiment, conducted by our Research Department with medical help. We have found that the people in a selected community are slowly giving up magic in the curing of disease, because our nurse is achieving a higher percentage of cures.

IN CONCLUSION: A word about religion. The difference between the Hindu religion and Hindu magic, is that the former includes supernatural beings whereas the latter does not. In the Hindu religion men appeal to the gods as to persons. The gods can intercede or not intercede, depending upon their own wills. But in magic no gods are necessary; the combination of myth and ritual works automatically. The power is in the very words spoken and in the very ceremonies performed. A prayer to a Hindu god may or may not be answered; that depends upon the god. But the magic spell will certainly work, unless there is a contrary magic.

Now in actual practice, as said in the beginning, religion and magic are almost always interwoven in Hinduism. I will give you an example. In our town, barren women who want children make up a doll and bring the miniature baby to the temple. They set the doll in front of the idol and then pray to the goddess for children. The question is, Is this religion or is it magic? On the one hand, the doll is like a child, and according to the theory that like produces like, here is magic. But the prayer is to their god who is, according to them, a supernatural being; so here is religion. The real answer to my question therefore is that this case is a mixture of magic and religion. It is for us foreigners seeking to understand Hinduism, to distinguish the two ingredients in each manifestation of Hinduism.

THE CONCLUSION OF THE WHOLE MATTER IS THIS: A foreigner seeking to understand Hinduism must take magic into account. He must recognise toni vidya and jhar phoonk when he sees them. He must know the two basic assumptions of magic, namely, that like produces like, and that things once in contact are always in contact. He should realise that the logic based upon these assumptions is intellectually so sound that he is bound to accord believers in magic his respect, while disagreeing with them. Finally, he should remember that in Hinduism, magic and religion are usually interwoven. This means that the already strong citadel of magic is buttressed by the added support of supernatural beings.

4. Some Questions and Answers

1. What had God been doing from eternity up to the time He began the work of creation or sitting idle and doing nothing?

2. If He had been doing nothing what made Him, to give up His state of slothfulness and begin the work of creation?

3. What was the purpose of His creating this universe or for whom He created this world when He alone was the existent being and being perfect needed nothing for Himself?

4. Out of what God created this, i.e., what is the material cause of this universe? Because God cannot create anything out of Himself. He is indestructible and indivisible.

The above questions were asked from the background of pantheistic thought or pantheistic monism. According to pantheism God and the world are not only correlatives but identical. So no question arises as to what God had been doing before the world was created and as to the purpose or why of this creation. Since God has no beginning the world has also no beginning. Since the world is the automatic expression of God just as the rays beam forth from the sun there can be no question of the Creator’s purpose. Purpose comes only when there is a deliberate action of the will. Pantheistic thought cannot adequately explain the world in which we live. To deny its reality by saying that it is maya is no solution. To rule out purpose from the world is to leave it without any significance.

Adequate answers to questions relating to what God has been doing before creation or to the material, cause of the universe may or may not be found. In seeking adequate answers we must not be led to a position which would deny or diminish the reality of God and the reality of the world and its meaning and significance.

The notions of creation and purpose can be understood only in relation to our faith in or idea of a God who is a Personal Being. The chief mark of personality is creative and purposeful action. So when you think of creation you are thinking of the world as having its source in the creative activity of God. God has willed the world and so the world came into being. The world is the expression of His personality and is the work of His love. It is the gracious kindly creation of God who in Himself is perfect. God might, indeed have existed without creating. But He did not will this. He willed to create a world, with men and women who would bear the marks of their Creator.

When the world is created by God by a deliberate act of His will it follows that the world has a beginning. So the question of what God has been doing before He created the world is a legitimate question. All we can say is that before He created the world He was existing, living a life of His own. We cannot describe this state of His being as idle or slothful. The perfect God lives a perfect life. Only if we think of God in terms of a homogeneous substance or of pure beingness, we are compelled to describe that state as idle or dreamy state, without any activity. But, if God is a personal being and a Trinity, you can easily understand how God can live an active and perfect life in Himself.

That which made God to create is His own will. He willed to create. So He created.

There is a purpose to this universe. Indeed, to say that the world is the result of the creative activity of God is to say that this world has a purpose. The action of the will is always purposeful. The purpose is to be understood not in relation to the Creator but in relation to the creation. God does not create to fulfil something He lacks in Himself, for He lacks nothing. So the proper question is what God’s purpose in relation to His creation is. From what God has revealed, and from what we are able to observe in the world, we can say that God’s purpose is to create a world in which there are free beings with the capacity for moral and spiritual growth by loving God wilfully and loving one another selflessly. Man is made to have fellowship with God and thus enjoy Him forever. He is also made to have fellowship with one another wilfully and selflessly. In loving God and loving man he grows spiritually and thereby attains his destiny, namely the perfection of his spiritual nature.

Question four postulates that one needs a material cause for an act of creation. This is true in the case of man. Man needs a material substance whenever he wants to make something. This is not creation in the strict sense. We only “make” and not create. Man is dependent upon other things and persons for his activity, because he did not contain within himself the conditions of his own existence. He is a creature, or a created being. Creation, the original act, is open only to God. He is not dependent upon anything outside Himself, because He is a perfect, independent, self-existing, Absolute Being. If He were dependent on anything other than Himself, He would not be God. Creation in the strict sense of the term is an independent, voluntary act of God. This is the idea contained in the Christian conception of ‘creation out of nothing’. This perhaps is beyond human understanding, because there is nothing in our experience that is similar to it. But it is admissible to the human mind. If God is absolute personality, His initial act of creation can only be a creation out of nothing Otherwise He will cease to be absolute. The material cause that is involved in our activity is itself the creation of God.

DR. V.P. THOMAS, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur, M.P.

Book Reviews

Yoga of Christ

By SWAMI JOHN DHARMA THEERTHAN (Kuzhitura), (Christu Dharma Sangham, 1954), pp. 103, price Rs. 1/4.

The plan of life in the East is intricate. But its social and cultural environment is a storehouse of the finest treasures that the Hindu has amassed in the struggle for self-fulfilment. Some prejudiced Indian Christians think that these are obstacles to be overcome. While others, especially those that appreciate their precious heritage, see that God has been working patiently through long centuries and is presenting this culture as an experience in indigenous ways. Such an expression redounds to the manifold glory of God. When Christ is studied and interpreted from this angle of vision and point of view, new horizons are reached resulting in fruitful pastures of that eternal truth that would be a real contribution, not only to the Christians of India but to the people of the whole world.

Swami Dharma Theerthan’s brochure Yoga of Christ is just such an expression. Here, the author brings out some remarkable points of resemblances between Hindu Yoga teachings and the precepts of our Lord Jesus Christ; he also shows some fundamental differences.

Thus, for instance, the yoga of Christ does not mean the merging of man in God, as some Hindus believe. “The Christian idea of union is indwelling and regeneration of the human personality by the Spirit of God.” But it is the resemblances that are astoundingly striking. To take just one example, the yoga system describes an eightfold system of exercises which will enable a seeker to grow steadily towards God-realisation. After enumerating them, the author says:

It is significant that in Christ’s teaching also we find an eightfold path in the Beatitudes in the Sermon on the Mount. In the Indian system ‘seeing God’ is the expression reached at the sixth stage of the spiritual progress. “They shall see God” comes at the end of the sixth beatitude in Christ’s teachings also.

Has Christ taught us a new way of life? If so, does it provide systematic discipline which may be called yoga? This book seeks to answer these questions.

But the attempt to answer these questions presupposes a theological postulate - viz, that in the process of salvation, and redemption while the initiative and all-powerful action rest with God, man also has some responsibilities. If yoga is effort and discipline, it cannot have any place in a system of theology in which salvation is purely an act of God’s grace, in which man has absolutely nothing to do except to wait patiently for the time. The author takes up the position that such a statement is only half-truth.

Says he: “The half-truth that a man’s redemption is not by any effort of his but purely by the grace of God has been preached as the whole truth so widely and frequently that many Christians live as if they had nothing to do at all to obtain eternal life except to look up to God and wait.” Faith in Christ involves large responsibilities and demands constant vigilance to walk in the path of righteousness.

But the Church, according to the author, has not provided adequate help for instructing the believers in the discipline taught by Christ.

So the theology of yoga propounded in this brochure is strictly Biblical theology based solely upon the words of the New Testament. According to the author neither Christ nor His Apostles have in the least underrated the importance of human effort. “But we should not forget that only such striving as is inspired by deep faith in and surrender to God’s guidance can bear fruit. It is God who gives power and life to man’s actions. Godless labour is utterly futile. Christian life is one of fellowship and co-operation with God. ‘Prepare ye the way of the Lord’, cried the Baptist. Every Christian has to prepare the way for Christ if our Master is to come to”his heart or home or Church”.

This preparation for Christ to come to us is the Yoga. So the topic of this book is what is the teaching of our Lord Jesus as to what a man should do to receive the gift of the divine spirit.

The Hindu Yoga Shastras prescribe a sixfold moral code and in the writings of the Apostles too we find sixfold or eightfold duties which believers are called upon to practise constantly and with devotion.

The eight lessons of yoga are called here meditations. Meditation here means, thought, study and practice for realisation of truth until one’s personality is transformed.

After a short discussion of what we may call the theology of the yoga the author deals with rare insight and consummate skill the psychology of the yoga. The ideal of a person with a healthy body, disciplined mind and spirit surrendered to God, is described in bold terms. The author is well versed both in modern psychology and ancient Upanishads. The white heat of his burning Christian experience transforms these into something distinctly glorious for our Master Jesus.

A large portion of the book has to do with meditations. These are intensely practical, and the various suggestions given are exceedingly helpful. In the Church in India there are very few books that give instructions along these lines, so we feel very thankful to the author for this contribution which meets a real need. So we commend this book unreservedly for it is not merely informative, but challenging and inspiring. The value of the book is enhanced by its lucidity of style and the helpful nature of its practical suggestions. But its special appeal is to those who are interested in the indigenous expression of Indian Christianity.

The Art of Life in the Bhagavad Gita

By H.V. DIVATIA (Bombay), (Bharitya Vidya Bhavan) 1953, pp. 164, price Rs. 1/12.

In March 1951, Shri K.M. Munshi organised what is known as the Book University of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. The object of this organisation is to produce in a uniform get-up and at a cheap price some outstanding books. The general editor says, As a first step it has been decided to publish in English 100 books selected by the General Editors out of which 50 will be taken on hand immediately.

The first such book published was Shri Rajagopalachari’s summary of the Mahabharata. The book now reviewed is the second of the series.

The author H.V. Divatia, an eminent jurist and student of philosophy, is vice-president of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. He feels that the Gita is a treatise on the art of life; so the title of his book is The Art of Life in the Gita. He, however, is not a dyed-in-the-wool conservative, but follows the liberal tradition of Neo-Hinduism. Nor has the historicity of the Gita any value for him. He is not willing to “enter into a discussion whether Shri Krishna was a mythological or historical figure”. For to the author the Gita is only “a song of an imaginary narrative of questions and answers.” (Page 16 - italics mine).

By so stating, he lets loose one of the most crucial theological problems of any religion, namely, the validity of the sanctions of the Scriptures. Shri Divatia is willing to abide by his statement and says “if different forms of sanctions satisfy different minds, let them not quarrel about the validity of these sanctions, because the validity is purely subjective by its very nature.” (Page XV, italics mine). Thus, the teachings of the Gita are based on such doctrines as ‘Brahma as the universal Soul’, ‘reincarnation of the human soul’, etc., and if the author’s position is fully upheld these theological doctrines are only “theories, or better still, hypotheses, which we can put forward to explain the phenomenal world as we all experience it.” Such an explanation according to the author, is “one of inner conviction and demonstrable proof.”

Thus, he does not praise the orthodox people who devoutly read the Gita and console themselves with their belief that they had merely to read it, leaving its lessons to be learnt by learned people who know Sanskrit. To the author the Gita is not a sacred book in the sense that one would gain religious merit if he merely recites its verses whether he understood its meanings or not.

The claim of the author is that the ancient seers of India intuitively arrived at certain profound truths, which by sheer necessity they had to express in concepts currently held good and in terms understandable by them and if the local and temporal coverings be removed, one would find that the discoveries of modern science only demonstrate the truths discovered by these ancient thinkers. So to Shri Divatia, the Gita is a guide book to men on the art of living, showing, people how to make progress facing frustrations and conquering calamities. So, according to him, “There is hardly any book in the religious literature of the world, which surpasses the Gita in the profound exposition of the qualities and constituents of the human mind and its capacity to rise higher and higher in its ascent to the peak of moral and spiritual progress.”

The Gita is studied here only from this standpoint, viz, that it is a treatise on the art of life. Here are some chapter headings:

• Psychology of the Gita,
• Epistemology of the Gita,
• Cosmology of the Gita,
• Metaphysics of the Gita,
• Ethics of the Gita,
• Religion of the Gita.

Because of the relativistic standpoint regarding the validity of his theological postulates, the author has to take refuge in pragmatism. “If the teachings of the Gita give solace to the human mind amidst the troubles and turmoils of every day life, enabling a person to lead a better, fuller and purer life, the fact that different views may be held on the ultimate metaphysical principles on which they are based need not deter us from putting those teachings into practice.”

The author’s style is lucid and clear, argument logical and forceful. If the basis for his arguments are granted, the conclusions are inevitable.

If anyone wants to know what the Gita means to a Neo-Hindu, he can read this book with profit, but at the same time it would be better to get a ‘balanced view’, so much insisted by the author by reading Farquhar or Hill on the subject.

Hindu View of Christ

By SWAMI AKHILANANDA (Philosophical Library, New York, 1949), pp. 291, price in India Rs. 6.

Here is a book by Swami Akhilananda of the Vedanta Society, Boston, Mass. U.S.A., who claims that a Hindu may worship Jesus as an incarnation of God.

The introduction to this book is written by Dr. Muelder, Dean of the School of Theology, Boston University. In it, he says, “The religious significance of Christ is here explored from within and in such a way that the daily relevance of his life and instruction are clearly delineated.” This appreciative, method stands in sharp contrast to the predominantly external type of criticism generally employed by Western scholars and Christians, in approaching Hinduism, Buddhism and other great religions. Thus, while it is important at the present time to consider Christ through oriental perspectives, it is even more important to appropriate him from an inclusive standpoint.

Dr. Muelder is a dearly cherished and highly respected guru of the writer of this review. So, he humbly begs his teacher’s pardons to differ from his view of this book, for which he (Dr. Muelder) has nothing but praises.

This book obliterates all distinctions between Hinduism and Christianity; and for Indian Christians, and Missionaries in India that is not a small matter.

No doubt the approach is fresh, and there are many interesting suggestions. Christian theologians are criticised here, not because they differ from Hinduism but because they (according to him) violate Christianity.

Patrons:

1. The Metropolitan of India, Calcutta.
2. Bishop Clement D. Rockey, Lucknow.

President:

The Rt. Rev, C.J.G. Robinson, M.A., Allahabad.

Vice-Presidents:

1. The Rt. Rev. A.J. Appasamy, M.A., Ph.D., Coimbatore.
2. The Rev. C.E. Abraham, M.A., B.D., D.D., Serampore.
3. The Rev. C.S. Thoburn, M.A., S.T.B., Jabalpur.

Secretary of Society:

Dr. A. Ralla Ram, Jamna, Allahabad.

Convener of Institutes:

Rev. R.C. Das, M.A., 129 Dashashwamedh, Banaras, U.P.

Editor of the Pilgrim:

Dr. R.D. Immanuel, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur, M.P.

Treasurer:

Prof. P.C. Addy, M.A., Bible House, Thornhill Road, Allahabad.

Committee:

1. Prof. V.E. Devadut, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., Serampore
2. The Rev. Paul Das, B.A., Allahabad.
3. The Rev. C.G. Diehl, Madura.
4. The Principal, School of Islamics, Aligarh.
5. Mr. S.J. Duraiswamy, B.A., N.M.S. Madras.
6. The Rev. R.W. Scott, M.A., Christian Council, Nagpur.

Editorial Committee:

1. Rt. Rev. Bishop A.J. Appasamy, Coimbatore.
2. Rev. C.G. Diehl, Madura.
3. Rev. R.C. Das, M.A., Benares.

Objects and Aims

The objects of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism are:

1. To create and maintain adequate interest in the study of Hinduism by Christians
2. To carry on the study in a sympathetic, constructive and critical way for the purpose of effective evangelism and
3. To achieve the above objects in co-operation with Church and Mission bodies.

The activities of the Society are:

1. An Institute of Hinduism in Benares,
2. ‘The Pilgrim’, a quarterly bulletin bearing on Hinduism, its relation to Christianity and work among Hindus and
3. Organising a permanent School of Hinduism

Every member will receive THE PILGRIM free Membership fee Rs. 4 per year

Note

Donations may be sent to the Treasurer:

Prof. P.C. Addy, M.A.,
Bible House,
12, Thornhill Road,
Allahabad.

Enquiries about the Society and its work should be addressed to the Secretary:

Dr. A. Ralla Ram, Jamna, Allahabad

All communications and correspondence relating to the Pilgrim should be addresses:

Dr. R.D. Immanuel, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur