The Pilgrim

The Quarterly Bulletin of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Editor: P. Chenchiah

To Our Readers

The purge of the membership list is completed. The result is we start with a number about which we cannot be enthusiastic. When we remember our target is 500, we are not even halfway up. Unless each member secures another, the goal will be no nearer. I have always regarded the ‘PILGRIM’ as a co-operative effort. We need and appeal to the co-operation of our readers. If you think of a probable member, drop me a card. I will send him a copy. The ‘Pilgrim’ should be self-supporting and help the Society. This depends on a wide extension of the membership roll. Will you help?

What Our Readers Say

Dr. J. Baninnga - Pilgrim place - Claremont, California - America writes (December 16, 1949).

The ‘Pilgrim’ has just come to hand, and I am delighted to note the contents. I have long been interested in the Madhwa Philosophy and am glad to see this excellent outline of the system. I trust there will be more of it.

Late Prof. Hiriyanne, Mysore Wrote (7 July 1950)

Sankara observes that a sure test of soundness in religion is that it helps to compose differences and not create them. The attitude adopted in this journal is of the right type and deserves to be highly commended. I have also read and greatly appreciated your reviews of the new books.

In Memoriam - Rev. H. Bjerrum

Mrs. Bjerrum has conveyed to me the sad news of the death on September 26 of her husband Rev. H. Bjerrum for many years a missionary of Danish Mission and for some time Professor at the Bangalore Theological College. I cherish the hospitality I received at their hands at Bangalore. All who knew him will receive the news in great sorrow. He loved India and was in contact with Indians who went to Denmark. Dr. Jesudasan spent some time with him and I learn that on his table was found after his death the proofs of the Tamil Bible Revision - his last labour of love for India. We convey to his wife and family our sympathy in their bereavement and pray that God will give them His consolation.

Editorial Notes

Christmas Greetings - Namo Yesu Bala

It is a world under the shadow of universal chaos that enters the Christmas this year with hope and trembling. The wise who have not searched, found and worshipped the infant Jesus as the wise men of the East did when Christ was born, have ruled the world and have led it to the brink of the abyss. Two world wars in one generation and a third inevitable in spite of planning and prayers to the contrary is the record of the politically wise. Religion, prudent in its generation and shrewd enough to ally with political powers and utterly devoid of plan or power to avoid the approaching doom, has leaders who endeavour to turn the world from the wrath to come with pious creeds and formulas. Unleashing great powers, which could not be harnessed for human well-being, itself like churches serving the states, actualising the doom which religion visions as a possibility has been the record of science. Humanity struck blind with excess of light, tottering from excess of strength, passes by the cradle. The infant babe with his crooning and smiles seeks to beckon the wise to His cradle, as the birthplace of hope - as the light that shineth in the darkness. We utter the prayer that the distracted and bewildered world led to its present condition by the wise and the great may gather hope and consolation, guidance and governance - from the babe and suckling - that is born today - as Emmanuel - God with us. God is with us - and on this Christmas may we recognise Him in our midst and give our hearts to Him - that we may escape from the doom we are bringing upon ourselves.

A Sadhu Comes to Our City

To our recollection, there has never been in the last thirty years such a grand welcome for a sannyasi as was given to Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh. A powerful reception committee presided over by a High Court Judge and composed of representatives of all professions, particularly strong in newspaper editors, arranged the programme which started_with a procession from the central Station to his residence at Ramanuja Kootum. The municipality - which very rarely welcomes Sadhus - though it occasionally honours Literati, gave a civic address which was read by the Christian Mayor of the City - Dr. Cherian.

Dr. Brunner once humorously complained to me that we in India slave-drive the visitors. If he had seen the programme arranged for swami he would have felt that if we slave-drive illustrious foreigners we do worse with our own Sadhus. The programme hardly left more than an hour’s rest. All the day he was talking and preaching. The lectures were arranged end to end from morning till the evening with the result if the first or any other subsequent meeting was unpunctual, as a matter of fact most of them were - the last meeting was late by hours. We went to hear the Swami at the meeting held under the auspices of the Philosophical Association. He was more than two hours late.

Almost all the newspapers featured his daily programme and gave a column or two for the report of his speeches. But none of them, so far as We know, spared an editorial for him nor tried to summarise the effect of his stay in Madras. Only one paper ‘Sunday Times’ did it and it was illuminating.

Sadhuji is not the picture of a Hatha Yogi in physical form nor of a Raja Yogi in his attractiveness. He is a fluent and effortless speaker and the combination of sankirtan and lecture gave him respite and rest - so much needed even in the course of a discourse. We agree that the strength of the Sadhuji was in his organising capacity and the appeal of his message was in this that with Ramakrishna mission he advocates a practical adwaita and an adwaita which faces social, political and spiritual problems of our newborn democracy. He asked his audience to bring to bear the insights of adwaita on our secular life. He stressed also the necessity of purity and honesty in public life. We wish he had exercised the prophetic function of judging our people by the ideals they profess to honour - more emphatically. There is no use telling our opportunist leaders, unprincipled politicians, heartless, black-marketeers, greedy bribe-takers that they are masquerading Gods. It would have been more chastening if they are told what they are - dogs - before we can din into them the idea of what they may become, i.e., men like god. We wish the Sadhuji laid the whip of moral indignation strongly on their backs. They need it, and it may turn out to be good medicine. If sannyasis like Sivananda - who are above popular approbation or disfavour do not give them home truths - who will? We need prophets of the type in the Old Testament among us today.

We came across a peculiar evidence of Sadhuji’s popularity among students. There was a rush on Sadhuji’s books in public libraries. When we applied for some of his yoga books - we were told they were all out. Who would have thought that our modern students have any attraction for Yoga?

Swamiji is related we are told to Appiah Dikshitha - a great name in South India in the savadwaitic tradition - a name to conjure with. No wonder a descendant of his was welcome among those who knew their religious history. Swamiji has come to our city and gone leaving pleasant memories behind - may be an awakened soul or two. We wish his tour all success and pray that he will elevate national Dharma and insist on high conduct among people who crowd to hear him.

The Late Professor M. Hiriyanne - A Gentle Soul Joins His Maker

Prof. Hiriyanne has gone away from us. His death leaves the group of scholars and philosophers in South India inconsolable. The editor had last year a long talk with him at his house in Mysore. A profound Sanskrit scholar and a foremost writer on Philosophy in India, Prof. Hiriyanne was a humble soul who shunned the limelight - so much so degrees had to be conferred on him in absentia. His two books on Indian Philosophy carved for him a permanent place in Indian Scholarship. He is one of the vanishing group of Hindus to whom philosophy was not so much knowledge as a discipline of life which contributes to life - a face and features. Calm, balanced, serene and never provoked, I found Hiriyanne a picture of a true philosopher. He was interested in ‘The Pilgrim’ and appreciated not only its reviews but was following closely ‘sampada chaturanga.’ We note that Madras has been the first to pay tribute, to his memory and the editor joins them. If the proposal to bring out his contributions to philosophical conferences and Reviews in a book form materialises quickly it will form a fitting memorial to this silent, deep, lovable scholar, whose loss we all in South India deeply mourn May his soul rest in peace.

Toc H Celebrates

The Christian public of Madras have witnessed in the month of October the Silver Jubilee Celebration of Toc H. Under the vigorous All India Commissionership of Mr. R.D. Paul, till recently occupying a high post in the Madras Secretariat, Toc H which till then was hiding its light under a bushel became a lamp set on a hill - visible to all. Toc H - stands for Talbot House in signaller’s alphabet. As one of the speakers put it, it was born amidst gas and guns, din and turmoil of the first world war. It stands for service in capital letters. My pastor told me that the free mixture of nationalities East and West has been the conspicuous feature of its fellowship. It stands for spontaneous self-expression of Christian ideals of love and service in the secular contexts of life The great thing about. Toc H is that it retains its sense of humour as its community songs testify. A religion that can laugh and weep alike has a divine origin. One of the songs puts the heart of the movement in the verse. ‘That riches end in smoke. So glory, glory be that we are stone broke.’

A group that espouses the cause of and helps with hope the stoney-brok-eum-has the hallmark of its Master and really spreads the gospel - good news. We wish Toc H an abiding place in the ministration of God’s love in India.

Hon. Sri C. Rajagopalachari Appreciates the ‘Pilgrim’

Hon. Sri C. Rajagopalachari - now the minister without Portfolio in the Central Cabinet, has evinced a deep interest in the Pilgrim. As soon as we sent him the first copy, he wrote an encouraging letter. He has written a letter dated 14-10-50 congratulating the editor on the high level maintained. He is pleased at the deep thought and catholicity displayed throughout. Of course this catholicity is not appreciated among some groups of Christians and that makes Mr. Rajagopalachriar’s letter one of real encouragement to the editor. Mr. Rajagopalachari in his new position, apart from his onerous official duties has been carrying on a ministry of reconciliation in the High political groups and the country is grateful for such services. He reads the whole issue - of the ‘Pilgrim’ that is more than many Christian readers do and has given his opinion on ‘sant’ about which we made a remark in the review of Dr. Fallon’s translation of St. John’s gospel. The editor values the kind interest which Mr. Rajagopalachari has taken and would like to assure him that as long as he remains the editor. (he cannot say how long) the message of Christ will be presented to the Hindu in a spirit of love and Hinduism presented to the Christian in a spirit devoid of narrowness and prejudice and bigotry and as far as possible in a spirit of due appreciation and esteem.

An Editor of ‘The Pilgrim’ Becomes the Bishop of Coimbatore

We offer our felicitations to Rev. A.J. Appasamy on his ordination as a Bishop. He has been a prominent thinker and has always pressed the claims of Hindu heritage as a means for better realisation of Christ by Christians. In his new high office he will have opportunities to implement his ideals. We hope he will continue his intellectual and inspirational work, though the burden of official activities may leave him little leisure. We beseech the prayers of our readers for divine guidance. The Bishop was the editor of “The Pilgrim” and we hope he will continue to take interest in this magazine.

Vibhuda Bahuda Vadanti

1. “Every person in the world may not become a personage, but everyone may become a personality” William Lyan Phelps, Page 238 Reader’s Digest, April.
2. “It is truly written - it is good to know where you stand - not upon whom you stand” Ching Chow in “Indian Express.”
3. “Science without religion is lame, Religion without science is blind.” Einstein in ‘Out of my later years’
4. “The only happiness I have seen is spiritual happiness and among religious people, who are by no means always Christians, is sometimes found the peace that passes all understanding.” Viscount Casiterosse in “Love, Life and Laughter”

Articles

Adwaita According to Sri Sankara - Continued

By Sri V.S. Narasimhachari

The unreal cannot become real nor vice versa. Therefore, Maya is said to be undefinable or Anirvachaniya

Maya is also called ‘Avyaktaa’ (Non-developed). It cannot create of itself without the instrumentality of the Lord. The illusion of a snake in a rope is not possible merely through ignorance without the rope. So also the world cannot be created merely by ignorance without the substratum or ‘Adhisthana’ of the Lord. Hence, it is dependent on the Lord, but the Lord is not at all affected by this ignorance even as the poison does not affect the snake which has it.

Maya it is, that produces the illusion of time, space and causality, which hides the true nature of Brahman and through its names and forms projects the multiple objects of the relative world. It is just like seeing a snake in a rope in the dark or seeing a mirage in a desert and mistaking it for water.

The world is not an illusion in the sense that it is non-existent (i.e.) absolutely nothing; but our experience of it is liable to be stultified by means of gnana or real knowledge. It is true for the time being (i.e.) until the knowledge dawns. In other words it has a relative existence.

The phenomenal world is, according to Sankara, real to all persons involved in maya as long as the ignorance lasts, and the man must behave himself in it as it is real so long as he is part of it. He must worship Iswara which is Brahman limited by Maya, being reflection of Brahman in Maya, the highest manifestation of Brahman in this phenomenal world and follow all the injunctions of the Vedas and observe the rules of morality.

The Maya is without a beginning since its effect the Phenomenal world is also without a beginning. Sankara says that if the world did not exist in a potential state in the form of “samsara” (impressions) the creation of the world at the beginning of a cycle would be creating something out of nothing, which is impossible and that the scripture also supports the existence of the world in former cycles.

The maya creates the world phenomena by what Sarkara calls Adhyasa or superimposition. He defines Adhyasa as apparent presentation to consciousness, by way of remembrance, of something previously observed in something else. The Adhyasa is not the real object seen sometime before but only experience of it and this experience must be a past experience.

The world phenomena are the Adhyasa of Brahman substratum just as in the case of the seed and the tree, the seed is the cause of the tree and the tree is the cause of seed in turn, ad infinitum, so in the case of illusions without a beginning, the self which is the substratum (or Adhishtana) of the Present Adhyasa is an object on account of past Adhyasa and that one had for its object Adhishtana, the self which had become an object of a still earlier Adhyasa and so on infinitum. The pure self without the limiting attributes is never the adhishthaya of an Adhyasa.

The soul is no other than Brahman. Individual souls are neither same nor different from Iswara or supreme Lord but eternal and dependent on the supreme Lord.

Sri Sankara says in Vivekachudamani “What is the use of dilating on this subject? The jiva is no other than Brahman” (Sloka 394).

There are vedic statements like “Tatvamasi” which clearly point to the ultimate and essential oneness of man or the individual soul and the universal soul, the reality behind them both being Brahman or pure consciousness. The identity between Jiva and Brahman is subject to the divestment, from the terms, of their Upadhis or limitations which are unreal and illusory.

What is Upadhi? Upadhi is a limiting or conditioning adjunct. There are three Upadhis in association with which Atman or Soul appears by Avidya or ignorance and Adhyasa a superimposition consequent thereon to be different, from what really is viz., jiva. They are:

1. The gross body, the medium through which the soul experiences pleasure and pain.
2. The subtle body, the instrument of soul’s experience, consisting of five pranas, the ten organs of perception and action, and budhi.
3. The causal body consisting of Avidya.

These three bodies are also classified into four sheaths or kosas:

1. Annamaya Kosa or the gross physical body:
2. The Manomaya Kosa or the sheath of the mind. It is this sheath that superimposes the sense of agency or of “I” and also experiences of outer world on the self.
3. The Vignamaya Kosa or budhi or the sheath of Intelligence. Though insentient by nature, it appears intelligent or conscious because it reflects pure Intelligence. This reflection of pure consciousness in Budhi is called the jiva or the individualised soul identifying itself with this sheath experiences misery and happiness.
4. Anandamaya Kosa or sheath of Bliss. The chief features of this sheath are pleasure and rest.

The physical body is same as Annamaya Kosa. The chief subtle body includes Pranamaya, Manomaya and Vignanamaya Kosas. The causal body is same as Anandamaya Kosa.

The Vignanamaya Kosa is endowed with intelligence. The Mano-mayo Kosa is the will through which action is performed and action is the characteristic of Pranamaya Kosa. Atman limited by the Upadhis of these three sheaths is endowed with knowledge, will and activity, the characteristics of jiva.

By ignorance the characteristics of the five sheaths or Upadhis are by Adhyasa superimposed upon the Atman, and he as jiva thinks he is the agent and subject to birth and death as doer of Karma and enjoyer or sufferer of the results of good and bad Karma and subject to samsara and transmigration

The “Existence, Knowledge, Infinite, which is pure Intelligence, reflected in Maya is Iswara the personal God and reflected in Antahkarna (Internal organ) is the jiva.”

The Individual soul is only a reflection: or image of the supreme Lord in Its Upadhi the Antahkarna, “As reflected it is not the same as the original nor is it a different thing.” The reflections of the Lord in different Antahkarnas are separate just as reflections of the sun in different sheets of water are separate As the trembling of the reflections of the sun does not affect reflections in other sheets of water, so the experiencing of happiness or misery by one jiva does not affect the other jivas.

From the fact that the djvas are reflections of the supreme Lord in its Upadhi Antahkarna it follows:

1. They are not the same or different from the Lord and the relation is that of fire and the sparks.

2. They are of infinite number differing from one another and are not all-pervasive. They are entirely dependent on the Lord.

3. They are eternal, and

4. They are intelligent by nature.

5. The jivas are not the same nor different from the Lord. The relation of the supreme Lord with the individual soul is as between the fire and its sparks i.e., of the whole and part. Though they seem different they are one like heat in the fire and its sparks. Though the scriptures declare jivas as parts of Brahman it is only from the standpoint of the relative world but from the absolute standpoint they are identical.

   The soul having on account of its ignorance identified itself with the Upadhis, body and mind, partakes of the pleasure and pain which are attributes of the Upadhis. The Lord is not so identified with the body and the mind and is not affected by the pleasure and pain of the particular jiva.

6. They are of infinite number differing from one another and are not all-pervasive.

   Though the Atman is one and all-pervasive the jivas or the individual souls which arise out of the connection of the Atman with different bodies and minds as Upadhis are different from one another. Therefore, they are infinite in number and also not all-pervasive. If all-pervasive there will be confusion of the fruits of action since each jiva if all-pervasive, will be present everywhere, and in proximity with whatever causes those results in the shape of pleasure and pain.

7. Jiva is agent and entirely dependent on the Lord.

   According to Sankara the soul is an agent so long as it is acting through the Upadhis. It is likened by Brahmasutras, as interpreted by him, to a carpenter who while engaged with his tools feels restrained and unhappy and when after finishing his job and returning home feels quite free and happy (i.e.). Atman is an agent while he is connected with the Upadhi in the ignorant state and is free and inactive when not connected with the Upadhis, in sound sleep or in the mukti state.

   But the jiva as an agent who can choose to do right or wrong is dependent on Iswara or the supreme Lord in its activities, that is, Iswara is guiding the activity of the jiva not whimsically or partially but according to its good and bad deeds in previous births with actions done in them for His guidance.

8. Jiva is eternal. Sankara quotes from scriptures and passages like, “Jiva does not die” and says that they show that jiva is eternal. It has neither birth nor death Which are spoken of only with reference to the body.

9. Jiva is intelligent by nature.

   The nature of the Jiva is intelligent. It is Brahman self whose essence is intelligence and which being limited by the Upadhis the body etc. manifests as jiva. Therefore, intelligence is its very nature and is never altogether destroyed.

Size of the Jiva

According to Sankara the Jiva in its real nature is identical with Brahman and as such it is all-pervading but as a reflection of Brahman in its Upadhis (i.e.) as subject to birth and death (i.e.) as a samsaric it is atomic. It is declared to be atomic because, as it is preponderating in the qualities of the Budhi, so long as it is imagined to be connected with the latter and in samsara the qualities of the Bhudhi are superimposed on it. ABODE OF THE JIVA is the heart.

Mukti or Release

Mukti is being in continuous realisation of the identity with Brahman. The Atma is of the essence of existence and bliss as already shown. By Maya and Adhyasa, it identifies itself with the mind and body its Upadhis and takes on itself the attributes of the Upadhis and thus thinks he is the agent, doer and enjoyer, sufferer of his Karmas. It becomes attached to the illusory world and, since its essential nature is Ananda, sets out in search of happiness. In that search it does acts which are good, bad and indifferent and gets further enmeshed in Karma and since jiva is an agent it is responsible for its acts. Since there is no end to Karma until knowledge of Brahman dawns, there will be no end to the cycle of births and deaths and bondage of maya.

After being buffeted between births and deaths and suffering, pain and sorrow in successive lives and perceiving the apparent inequalities, failure of justice and moral law, obtaining in this world, in the course of his many lives, there comes a time when man begins to think of final release from samsara (the cycle of births and deaths), he seeks a guru who has realised Brahman and having under his guidance acquired knowledge of self, gets rid of ignorance and realises oneness with Brahman and becomes a jivanmukta (i.e.) freed while alive.

On realisation of Brahman, the past accumulated Karma (Sanchita) is destroyed. The Agami Karma (the future one) does not cling. Only Prarabdha Karma (i.e.) the Karma that has begun to bear fruit will have to be gone through and, after its exhaustion, which may be in the same life or after several lives, the body falls off, and he becomes merged in Brahman, and attains what is called Vidhya Mukti (i.e.) freedom from body.

From the above is seen that the Atma by contact with the Upadhis falls from its nature of pristine bliss and knowledge and being one without a second, struggles through many cycles of births and deaths to regain its original nature and finally succeeds in doing so by knowledge. This experience of identity of soul with Brahman is Mukti which frees the soul from the bondage of samsara or cycle of births and deaths in this world.

There is no difference in Mukti. It is of one kind in all cases. Since Brahman is Mukti state, and it is without qualities there can be no variety in it. But in the cognition of saguna Brahman with many qualities there may be difference according to difference in Vidyas or modes of worship.

Bhagavadgita describes jivan, Mukti in chapter 14, slokas 22 to 25 as follows:

    He, oh Pandava, who does not abhor illumination,
    activity and delusion when they arise nor longs for them
    when they cease.

    He who is seated like one unconcerned, unperturbed
    by Gunas or modes, who stands apart, without wavering,
    knowing that it is only the Gunas that act.

    He who regards pain and pleasure alike, who dwells
    in his own self, who looks upon a clod, a stone, a piece of
    gold'as of equal worth, who remains the same amidst the
    pleasant and the unpleasant things, who, is firm of mind
    who regards both blame and praise as one. He who is
    same in honour and dishonour and the same to friends and
    foes; and who has given up all initiative of action, he is said
    to have risen above the gunas.

Karma Mukti

According to Sankara, Iswara, or Brahman with attributes is a product of Maya; the highest being of the Nirguna or attributeless Brahman. So long as the jiva is in the relative world, Iswara is to him as real as the world. Iswarm is endowed with such qualities as omniscience, omnipresence and overlordship of the Universe and unlimited powers. It is Iswara who is called the creator, preserver and destroyer of the Universe. Pure Brahman is attributeless. Though from the absolute standpoint both Iswara and jiva are non-existent and mere appearances, from the relative plane, Jiva is the worshipper and Iswara the worshipped. The devout worship of Iswara however does not lead directly to the knowledge of the Absolute Brahman but leads to Brahmaloka on death. But only those who meditate on saguna Brahma without a symbol attain this Loka.

The released soul in Brahmaloka is without any other ruler except the Lord, and he gets his desires fulfilled by mere wish except the power of creating etc., of the world.

The equality of the released souls with the Lord is only as regards enjoyment and not with regard to creation etc.

The released soul can exist both ways in Brahmaloka - with or without a body according as it likes. It can animate several bodies at the same time.

There is no returning to the cycle of births and deaths of the released soul from Bramaloka.

On the occurrence of pralaya i.e. at the end of a cycle, Iswara, and the residents of Brahmaloka having attained, meanwhile, knowledge, attain supreme Brahman. This is what is called ‘Karma Mukti.’

Sadhana or Technique

It is seen already that the Adhyasa or superimposition of the attributes of the Upadhis through ignorance is the cause of bondage. Therefore, the bondage can be got rid of by eliminating the falsely superimposed attributes and thus discovering the true nature of Brahman.

This process of elimination is called ‘Apavada’ or negation. What is negated is not the reality of the world but the illusory notion that the phenomenal Universe is real in itself independent of Brahman.

This “Apavada” involves “Viveka” or discrimination between the self and non-self and elimination of the latter by adhering to the former.

The aspirant for liberation must be skilled in arguing in favour of the scriptures and able to discriminate between the real and the unreal.

Among things conducive to Liberation Bhakti or devotion alone holds supreme place. The seeking after one’s real nature is designated Bhakti or devotion.

The four means of attainment which alone being present the devotion to Brahman succeeds and in the absence of which it fails are:

1. Discrimination between the real and the unreal
2. Vairagya or aversion to the enjoyment of the fruits (of one’s own actions) here and hereafter
3. Six attributes or Shatsampathis
4. Mumukshatva or yearning for, liberation.

A firm conviction of the mind that Brahma is real, and the Universe is unreal is “Viveka.”

The desire to give up all transitory, enjoyments ranging from those of Brahman, having known their defects from observation, instruction and so forth is “Vairagya”.

The Shatsampathis are:

1. Sama. The resting of the mind steadfastly on its goal (Brahman) after detaching itself from the manifold sense-objects by continually observing their defects.
2. Dama. Turning away the sense-organs both of knowledge and action from sense - objects by continually observing their defects and placing them in their respective centres.
3. Titiksha. The bearing of all afflictions without caring to redress them, being at the same time free from anxiety on their score.
4. Shardha or Faith. Acceptance by firm judgement of the mind as true, what the Scriptures and the Saru or Teacher instructs.
5. Samadhana or Self-settledness: Constant concentration of the intellect on the ever pure Brahman.
6. Mumukshatva or yearning for freedom, desire to free oneself, by realising one’s true nature, from all bondages from that of egoism to that of the body-bondages superimposed by ignorance.

The aspirant to liberation possessed of the above qualities should approach a wise Preceptor or Guru who has realised Brahman for instruction. His instructions must be followed by reflections on the Truth and meditation (and not through perverted arguments.) The true nature of things is to be known personally, through the eye of clear illumination and not through the teacher. The Atma is attained only by him whom it chooses.

    Nayam Atma pravachana labhyo
    Na medhya Na bhahuna Srutena
    Yam evaisha vrunute tena labhya
    Stasyaisha Atma vivrunute thanum swam

— Katha Upanishad II 2

[“The Atma cannot be attained by the study of the vedas, nor by intellect nor even by much learning; by him, it is attained whom it chooses - this is his (own) Atman, reveals its own (real) form”]

    Nayam Atma balahinena labhyo
    Na Cha pramadat Tapaso vapalingat
    Etirupayai ryatate yestu vidwan
    Stasyaisha Alma Visete Brahmadhama

— Mundaka Upanishad III, II 4

[“The self is not gained by men of weak spirit, nor, by the careless, nor by those practising improper austerities. But wise men who strive with vigour, attention and propriety attain union with Brahman.”]

Instructed by a wise Guru the aspirant must practice meditation. The following rules of meditation are taken from Brahma sutras as interpreted by Sankara. The Upasana or meditation is uninterrupted flow of consciousness; concentration on a single object, with fixed look, and without any movement of the limbs. It must be done only sitting and not standing or walking. Then the body will be at rest and the mind also will be at rest. There is no restriction as to the place of meditation. It can be practised, wherever the mind feels serene and finds it easy to concentrate. The meditation on the supreme Brahman must contemplate it as identical with Himself. If symbols are used for contemplation, the meditator is not to comprehend them as identical with him. The symbol has to be viewed as Brahman and not in the reverse way The meditation should be repeated till knowledge is obtained. The aspirant should meditate rejecting all the five Kosas which formed the Upadhis of the Atman by the help of the scriptural statement. “It is not this, it is not this” and contemplating “I am Brahman.” He must contemplate “I am Atman - one without a second free from changes. I am not the body, I am free from sorrow, attachment, malice and fear I am not the mind.”

The impression of “I am Brahman” thus created by uninterrupted reflection destroys ignorance by knowledge and Atman appears. This is what is called “Aparokshanubuti.”

As a result of Vevika and Vairagya, the Guru’s guidance and meditation and knowledge, the Aparokshanubuthi occurs.

Then:

    Bhidhyate hridaya grandhi
    Schidhyante Serva samsayaha
    Kshiyante Chasyakarmani
    Tasmin dhrishte Paravare

[“The knot of the heart bursts as under, all doubts are dispelled and karma perish when a person reaches it in both the high and low.”]

Sri Sankaracharya says “that even after the Truth has been realised there remains the strong beginningless obstinate impression that one is the agent and experience which is a cause of one’s transmigration, and it has to be carefully removed by living in a state of constant identification with the supreme self.”

The knowledge may occur in the very life in which the means are completed or in one or more succeeding lives. But usually as Bhagavadgita says Perfecting himself through many lives, then attains to the highest goal Bhagavadgita (6.45).

Review’s (By the Editor)

How to Present Christ to a Hindu

By Rev. R.C. Das, M.A., published by North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society, 18, Clive Road, Allahabad pp: 23 - price 4 annas.

With the freedom of India two factors have come into existence. Hinduism has gained resisting strength by accession of power and Christianity has lost whatever adventurous strength it had by reason of conqueror’s political prestige. We are brought back to the first century conditions of necessity to rely on innate spiritual strength and vitality. Naturally the first question that calls for rethinking will be the topic of how to present Christ to a Hindu. We welcome this pamphlet as it embodies the deeper reflections of Indian Christian thought on Evangelism. Much of the thinking on this matter suffers from alien modes of thought and approach and from institutionalism of an incurable nature. Very little contribution has come from the convert who is competent to speak with inside knowledge. Colossal ignorance about Hindu mind, stands as an impassable barrier in evangelism. The missionary methods brought over from historic churches were not even adapted to Indian conditions. World conferences, by making evangelism and its methods dependent on the theory of relation of Christianity to non-Christian religions have added confusion to confusion. Rev. R.C. Das living in the historic centre of Hinduism. Benares has ample opportunity of studying Hinduism in the minds and souls of Hindu spiritual aspirants. He writes not only as one who knows his Bible but also as one who knows his Hindu._ This forms a conspicuous gain in the treatment of the problem.

To summarise the tract is to reproduce it. To develop the theme, would be to write a review many times longer than the booklet. In these circumstances, we can only stress the fundamental note that in presenting Christ to the Hindu it is life that counts and not logic. We have to present Christ as we have often said not standing against the Hindu but standing along with him; not by pressing the Church and doctrines forward but by introducing Christ to the Hindu in an impressive context. We may take it as an axiom that unless the preacher has the power of the spirit, love of Jesus and shows it in action, mere preaching as a profession has little or no enduring effect. This point is rubbed home, we gladly note, in this booklet.

Missionary workers, Indian Church Agencies, the N.M.S. and all those who are engaged in presenting the gospel should read, mark and digest Rev, R.C. Das’s views on the subject for it contains in a short compass almost the whole of mature Indian Christian thinking on the subject and gives a correct picture of the Hindu Religious Psychology - very rare to get.

Professor: Radhakrishnan and a Parliament of Religions

By Dr. D.G. Moses - No. 2 of the ‘Claim content and context of Christian Evangelism in India’ Series. Christian Literature Society Madras, price 12 annas.

No argument has been so popular in India, none so jealously propounded by religious leaders of eminence in India as the one that all religions are of equal value and are equally competent to lead us to truth. Notwithstanding its popularity it is more a gesture for peace and religious co-operation than a belief held on rational grounds. Prof. D.G. Moses, Principal, Hislop College, Nagpur subjects this doctrine, as propounded by Dr. Radhakrishnan in Eastern Religions and Western Thought, which was written as a counter-attack to Dr. Albert Schweitzer’s ‘Eastern Religions and Western Thought to rigorous scrutiny.’ Dr. Moses analyses closely, and critically the several arguments advanced in favour of the theory and comes to the conclusion that the thesis is logically unsound, Apart from its sentimental value the reader will agree with the author that the view has very little historic or scientific support. As we often pointed out that this theory runs counter to the history of world-religions and if pressed to logical conclusions will eliminate value and development in the field of religion. The theory though popular has done positive disservice to a real appreciation by one religion of new values in another. The argument of the author would have been more effective if we have his own theory of the relation of religions. The reader can then see how far the critic a voids the fallacies he condemns in the theory criticised. We do not see why one should object to a parliament of Religions or a brotherhood of Faiths simply because one does not approve the reasons advanced for: such a parliament. As the theory that all religions lead to the same goal has become almost axiomatic among Hindu leaders a critical examination, in a spirit of dispassion, as the author has done may serve the cause of comparative religion. We may also point out that Dr. Radhakrishnan’s view on Hinduism developed in his book on ‘Eastern Thought and Western Religions’ has received a trenchant criticism, in many respects stronger than that of Dr. Moses, from Pandit Lakshman Shastri Joshi in his ‘A Critique of Hinduism’ at pages 72-73. A review of this book appears in this issue.

Tamil Theological Terms

Christu Mata Paribashasanskrita - dramidaparyaya Laghu Anukramani - Report of the Christian Literature Society Committee pp. 16, annas 4. Christian Literature Society, Madras.

This small brochure of about sixteen pages marks a new adventure away from the so-called safe lines usually adopted by Christian Publishing Houses. For one thing it involves a labour of research seemingly out of all proportion to the results. As the contributor of the Sanskrit terms in the committee, the editor knows how much study and search had to be made to hunt and capture the correct term. The joy of pursuit is the true, reward for the labour involved. For another thing the formation of a theological vocabulary has a significance for preaching the Christian message hardly realised by preachers. Where preaching depends on words, the first hurdle to be got over is intelligibility and the second proper understanding. Much of the Christian preaching when it is not primarily human, is alike unintelligible and unappealing to the Hindu. Words are repositories of social psychology and have profound value and appeal by reason of their capacity to stir up emotion. The use of the right word is a means of gaining an entry into the heart of the hearer. The vocabulary of the theological terms, though a beginning is a Christian envoy to the Hindu mind and implies a new approach in evangelism.

The present list is intended to help those who desire to write a primer of Christian theology such as would be serviceable both to Christians and Hindus. Whether the vocabulary is adequate or not can only be tested by somebody undertaking to write such a primer I hope Christian Literature Society will attempt this task. Then we will be in a position to know whether the list contains the necessary terms or omits any. In the light of such a test the list may be revised. Whether the equivalents chosen are apt or not can only be tested by the readers of such a primer - Christian and Hindu. They alone can say whether the words chosen convey the right shade of meaning to them. We hope the list will be put to both these tests.

We think these lists are but the beginning of a new study. The next effort should be to assemble the vocabulary for an intermediate or advanced text book on theology. The difficulty is not so much in getting equivalents as settling the terms for which we need equivalents. A group of Indian Christian Pastors should collect the vocabulary from advanced theological treatises. This could be done if due co-operation is forthcoming in a few months. Then we may search and get the equivalents with the co-operation of Hindu friends versed in Sanskrit.

It would have been interesting and educative if in the case of few capital terms, an attempt is made to explain the difficulties to be encountered in getting the correct equivalents and from what quarter the equivalents are obtained. Such a study will be a contribution to comparative study in meanings of word and their association with racial psychology. I hope this could be done in the next edition if called for.

The title page calls the list ‘Tamil theological terms.’ It would have been better and more correct if it is stated that Sanskrit equivalents are included. This is mentioned in the inside page but should have been mentioned on the title page also. More persons may be willing to purchase it if they knew Sanskrit equivalents are given and equivalents are not restricted to Tamil only.

The ‘Pilgrim’ has been featuring a study on these lines for some months, and we are glad that Fr. Fallon has started a similar study in the Clergy Monthly. If any of the religious Hindu papers could co-operate the movement can take quicker and larger strides.

Dravidian Literatures

By Sri K.A. Nilakanta Sastri - Professor of History (Retired), University of Madras - Publisher - S. Visvanathan, 14, Singanna Naick St. G.T. Madras, pp. 48, price 1 Rupee.

Strange as it may seem, a continuous history of Dravidian Literature did not exist till Dr. Farquhar planned his ‘Heritage of India’ series. The two books on Kanarese and Telugu literature narrated the story of literature from the beginning up to date and tried to form a critical estimate of literary trends and movements. More ambitious schemes for Tamil and Malayalam did not materialise. Since, we have had histories of literature meeting the demand. We, in South India belong to pacha Dravidas who include Mahrattas. We have drifted away from their company - though they conquered us and left their mark on South Indian History. There can be however no doubt that Tamil, Telugu, Kanarese and Malayalam are a family of kindred literature, which acted on and reacted to, each other. Again strangely, no attempt has been made at a comparative study of Dravidian Literatures.

Prof. Nilakanta Sastri in the book under Review “Dravidian Literatures” has met this crying need. The author is well known as a historian of eminence and his works always carried the hallmark of deep-scholarship. Literature is a part of history and his critical acumen is as welcome in this field as in Chronicles of History. Within a compass of forty-eight pages he has managed - a marvel of condensation - to survey four literatures - without omitting anything essential. There can be no doubt that students of comparative literature will welcome the book warmly and look forward for the more elaborate book - History of South India - promised to come out early. Now it is possible to take a cross-section view of literature and find out what was happening in the rest of the Dravidadesa when Nannayya began his Bharata and Krishnadeva Raja his ‘Vishnuchittiyam.’ On the whole one is struck with the remarkable fact that literary movements in one language area rarely spread to another. When we look into the substance of literature at a particular period we see no thread of connection uniting them. Veerasaivism did not inspire Tamil country in literature very much while the influence of Vaishnavism on Telugu literature was not due to a popular literary movement but to the fact that the emperor was converted to Vaishnavism. We have no doubt, the brochure will start many enquiries and bring out many unexpected results particularly on the relation of life and literature. Nannechoda’s Kumarasambhaya illustrates the southern political, influence on the Telugu country during the period of Chodas, Ramakrishna Kavi has brought out just recently a critical edition of this book.

The Influence of Hinduism on Indian Christians

By Dr. R.D. Immanuel - published by Leonard Theological College - Jabalpur, India, pp. 251 - Price not stated.

Christianity was compared by its founder to a seed. A living seed draws its nourishment from the land in which it is sown. If it does not draw its nourishment from the environment it dies. The influence of Hinduism on Christianity and of Christianity on Hinduism are signs of life and a matter for rejoicing.

Christianity has been in India for more than 17 or 18 centuries and has come in power after British conquest. The doubt has often crossed the mind whether it comes as an imported article like the rice we get today, or is it a cropocracy of the soil. There have been critics who described Christianity of India as an extension of western denominations or as an echo of their master’s voice - a replica and a reproduction.

The book under review seeks to settle this question by a study of thought movements of Indian Christians in the region of theology. The author has expressed the purpose in these words. “The purpose of this dissertation is to study the influence of Hinduism on South Indian Christian Theology.” Again “The purpose of this study is very simple. It is to get a clear picture of the present day Indian Church with reference to its doctrinal standpoint.” With this object in view he has studied the publications and articles of a group of South Indian Christians may be called ‘Christo Sana Group’ or ‘Rethinking Christianity’ school of thought. They are Mr. Chakkarai an Advocate and a Labour Leader, Mr. A.J. Appasamy - now Bishop of Coimbatore, Mr. Job, now Secretary, of Church of South India, Mr. Sudarsanam, Editor of the Guardian, Mr. Devasahayam - an alumnus of the Serampore College, Mr. G.S. Paul - late of Andhra College, now of S.C.M., Mr. Eddy Asirvadam - Exchange Professor, New York, Dr. Jesudasen of Thirupatur Ashram, and the reviewer.

On an examination of their views he reaches the conclusion that Christianity has struck root in India and the first fruits of such acclimatisation are Sadhu Sunder Singh and Indian Christian Theology. Of the latter we have a sympathetic and fairly exhaustive study. The pattern of Christianity that is developing differs from Western Historic tradition and theology in the vital respect that it goes to Christ direct for its life and does not get itself entangled in scriptures, churches, traditions and sects. Of the features of this new pattern, Yoga in preference to Sacraments, Holy Spirit in preference to Creeds, Resurrection in preference to Cross, sayings of Jesus in preference to Old Testament, Organisms and Ashramas in preference to Organised Churches, Incarnation in preference to the Absolute, propagation by spirit, any deviation from the creedal and traditional path found in the extreme liberalism of the group whose views are dealt with in the book, may mean a danger to the foundations of Christian faith. We have their opposite numbers in Hinduism. The history of Christianity and Hinduism in their long perspectives teaches us that the freedom of spirit is never a danger to religion and the true danger comes from solid structures of words and samsara in which we seek to imprison the Spirit. I recommend this book to all those who are still responsive to the motions of the Holy Spirit and have cast aside vain fears and forebodings.

A Critique of Hinduism

By Pandit Laxmanasastri Joshi-Tarkatheerth - 2nd edition, Modern Age Publications Navasari Chambers, Outram Road, Fort, Bombay, pp. 131.

It is not so well known as it ought to be that socialists, radicals and communists are developing an intellectual front interpreting Indian History, Sociology and Religion from the standpoint of Marxian dialectical materialism which holds that religion is an aspect of social development governed by economic condition and changing with the means of production. Mr. M.N. Roy, in his Humanist Magazine and Mr. Dange in his Studies of Rigveda and the author of A critique of Hinduism are leaders of this front. It is interesting that leaders are coming from Pandit class well versed in Sanskrit and Sanskrit literature.

The general position maintained by the author in these lectures originally delivered to the students of Nagpur University is interesting. He holds the conception of God and immortality and other metaphysical concepts of religion are necessary and essential at certain stages of social development but are to be discarded when the scientific stage is reached there being no further necessity for these scaffolding, Even for scientists, it may be difficult to concede this position for, even material Life is not exhausted by what comes within the senses but includes conditions that determine the possibility of our knowledge. Science is bound to investigate all regions of human experience and not exclude any on purely a priori grounds.

It is not our object in this review to criticise the dialectical materialism which is adopted for evaluating Hinduism but to see whether any tangible results have resulted from such application. For one thing while the knowledge of Sanskrit of the author is great, very little is made of it in marshalling the data. He adopts mostly the results of western criticism and is trenchant in his criticism of apologist of Hinduism like Dr. Radhakrishnan. The author has not even tried to strengthen dialectical materialism from the course of Hindu religious history. It has never been shown, with any convincing logic that Industrial system has fundamentally affected religious presuppositions of religions in an earlier social order. A study of primitive religion in relation to certain strata of Hinduism may afford an opportunity for testing the theory, but the advantage is not taken,

One interesting result according to the author is that Mahabharata discloses an attitude in which the secular determines: the ethical without any recourse to supra-mundane sanctions. The author points out that Kingship was made in Mahabharata the ground for ethics although even here religious presuppositions are mixed up! Even here no effort, is made to show that Kingship in. India arose out of any fundamental economic changes or developments.

Chapters 2 and 3 make stimulating study. The criticism of the views of Dr. Daptari and Mr. Mohini and Dr. Radhakrishnan are effective as they are made from a clear and definite standpoint. For those who are interested in the shape of things to come in India-which of us is not the book is bound to be an eye-opener. As striking a new line of criticism of Hinduism, it is a valuable contribution to socialist literature.

The Hindu orthodoxy, which has been parleying with the Muslim, Christian and Western culture as enemies at the gate will realise if they read this book that they are attacked in the rear by a new opponent with new weapons. They will realise that all orthodoxies - Christian, Muslim and Hindu have to settle with this new religion without Gods and hereafter. They have to meet them in argument: as well as in action. Appeal to authority and faith, dogma and scriptures are somewhat outmoded weapons in this new contingency.

We recommend this book to all our readers not as one they will entirely approve but as representing an ideology they have to reckon with whether they like it or not.

Samapada Chaturanga

By P. Chenchiah

First there is good news. Fr. Fallon has started a discussion of the theological equivalents in the ‘Clergy Monthly.’ It will be remembered that Fr. Fallon has published a glossary of Bengali religious terms. We hope when he brings out a second edition. - he will use Roman Characters along with Bengali so that the glossary may be useful all over India. He has chosen the following terms - Devil, Excommunication, Heresy and Schism - Immaculate Conception, Sacred Heart, Holy Spirit, Grace, Incarnation, Pomps. Though some terms fall under church - some are theological. We deal with some of these terms in this issue.

The C.L.S. Madras has brought out the report of the committee appointed to find out Tamil and Sanskrit equivalents of theological terms. We have reviewed this book in this issue. It makes distinct contribution for this interesting study.

The Hon. Rajagopalachari, Minister, Central Government in a letter points out that sant is not adopted from Saint but a word in use in North India. We have something to say about this. We are glad that Mr. Rajagopalachari is interested in terminology. We commend to his attention Samapada Chaturangzand and his suggestions and criticisms will be valued. We hope he will interest an English - Sanskrit knowing theologian knowing theological terminology such as we have in view.

We have so far provided the terms necessary, preliminary to starting a book on theology - of an intermediate nature - (i.e.) neither elementary nor advanced. We have given equivalents for Theology, Religion, Chapters and Contents of a theological book. Next we have to proceed chapter by chapter starting with Christology. It would be better to devote one issue for ‘isms’ before we tackle Christology.

Now, for some of the words in the article of Fr. Fallon.

Angels and the Devil. It may be that to find a satisfactory synonym for either we have to search a fairly extensive field in Angelogy and Demonology in Hinduism - a field not usually explored. Till then, we have to do with terms that are prima facie satisfactory. After investigation, it may be found there are no exact equivalents to ‘Angel’, at least for the winged variety nor for Satan - a unified opponent of God. There are mentioned in Puranas beings other than human. To give one classification we have Vydyadhaharas, Gandharvas, Kinnaras, Kimpurushas. Kimpurushas are pixies. Gandharvas, when women, are beautiful - inclined to fall in love with men. Kinnaras, I read somewhere, are horse-faced and play on harps. I cannot vouch for it. Vidhyadharas are the only one who come anywhere near angels. Kinnaras, a Hindu friend tells me, across the table as I am writing this carry harps. If so one point in their favour. There are devas such as attended Damayanti’s swayamvara - they are unwinking - (i.e.) they won’t wink or blink and their feet do not touch the ground. My knowledge of Angels is somewhat elementary. I wonder whether either of these features apply to them. Can angels wink or bat their eyelids? Leaving these, we have three terms suitable for the purpose. Devadutas - messengers of God and Deva Kinkaras (on the analogy of yama kinkaras) servants of God - Kinkara - means he who does Kainkarya - service. Yama Kinkaras go between heaven and earth constantly though to take away souls. Then we have amaras - the deathless one. If they guard the city of God - Dwarapalakas would be a classical term. Messenger and Servant are vocations. The terms do not describe what angels are in themselves. Amaras may fill the role. I wonder what is the Arabic for an angel! Amaras and Nityas are eternal beings. Prasadas or Parisadas are the retenue of God. All these terms are available.

As for the devil, Hinduism spells devil in the plural not singular. God has not a co-equal enemy: who rules the world and measures swords with Him, though ultimately destined to be vanquished. Asuras, Danavas and Daityas - are, I have read somewhere, thrown out of heaven - so they are like Satan. They fought the incarnations. They are opposed to God. But they are mostly Kings with bodies. Prahlada’s father was one. Satan has nobody. Asurapati is a good enough word. Why not go to Zend-avesta and get ‘Ahirman’ the enemy of God? He fills the bill completely. Zend-avesta is nearest, to Sanskrit. Shaitan is acceptable because - current all over India. Buddhism gives us the word ‘mara’ which is the same as manmacha and his temptations are sexual. But Mara is a tempter as Satan was. We have to adopt the device of capital letters to distinguish one from the many. For example, Ripu is enemy but with a capital initial letter it may mean. The enemy - shaitan. So the words Vairi, Virodhi. Thus, for Satan we have - Danavapati Asurapathi - Ahirman, shaitan; Mara from Buddhism, and Ripu, Vairi, Virodhi, Drohi, Satru. Since writing this I came across slokas 138-139 of Sri Madhwa’s Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya in which it is said that ‘kali’ is an office and that the incumbent is the head of asuras. Narada is the reputed and classical messenger between God and men, but he is too Indian to be taken as a synonym for angel.

With regard to ‘sant’ Hon. Rajagopalachari says it is an old word prevalent in North India and not an adaption of saint. Though the word sant for Rishi is not in vogue either in Sanskrit or in South Indian vernaculars - all rishi have the characteristic of santa - peace. Possibly the word saint itself may have been adopted from ‘santa’. We hope some Hindu scholar, and a Western scholar among our readers will throw light on the point. This issue’s honourable mention goes to Hon. Rajagopalachari for his comments on ‘Sant’.

(All Rights Reserved.)

Note

We have received the following books too late for Review in this issue:

1. Literary Criticism in Sanskrit and English by Prof. D.S. SARMA, Prof. Kuppusami Sastri, Research Institute, Mylapore, Madras.
2. The Flute of Krishna by P.A. KRISHNASWAMY, M.A., S.P. League Ltd, Calcutta.
3. Ramana Maharishi by Mr. M.D. SAGANE.
4. Origin of Creation - 1st and 3rd Volumes by SWAMI SUDARSANA ANANDA, MYSORE.
5. Synopsis of Philosophy of Dayananda by SWAMI NARENDRA, ANANDA SARASWATHI, Vijana Prachar, Bezwada.
6. Sri Bassva and his contemporaries by SRI SIVARUMARASWAMI - Siddaganga.
7. The development of the Gita concept of God by J. KALATHILS and ‘perpetual calendar’.
8. Vedic Religion and Philosophy by SwAMI PRABHAVANANDA, Ramakrishna Mission, Madras.
9. Wanders of the Time Space - SWAMI MADHAV TIRTA - Valad, Ahmadabad.
10. Saivam; Sivaboahasaram and Chokkanatha Vera - DHARMAPURA ADHINAM
11. ‘Deliver us from Evil’ - Studies on the Vedic ideas and Salvation, by STEN RODHE, Lund, Sweden.

Reviews will appear in our next issue.

Printed by FENN, THOMPSON and CO., Vepery, Madras

“The Activities of the Department of Organised Research”

Leonard Theological College

DR. HENRY H. PRESLER, Director.

This department was organised on July 1, 1949 for the purpose of supplying Christian evangelists among Hindus with additional data pertaining to Hindu culture. The department seeks to examine urban religious phenomena with the disciplines of the social sciences, particularly with the concepts, techniques and methods of ecology, sociology and cultural anthropology.¹

The Department of Organised Research is an adjunct of the Graduate School, but under-graduates assist in minor phases of its activities. During the scholastic year 1949-1950 each of three graduate students and the director devoted twenty hours per week to research. For the year 1950-1951 the same number of graduate students, putting in the same amount of time on research, are assisted by seven under-graduates putting in fewer hours in field work and in recording data.

The problems before the workers may be classified, for the purpose of this statement, as individual and departmental.

Individual Problems

Individual problems are those undertaken by single students, working alone, but under the guidance of the director and the Research Seminar. These problems are reported in the form of graduate and senior theses.

During 1950-1951 C.M. Abraham, graduate, completed a socio-religious description of a foreign language (Malayalam) church in an urban environment, and the conditions within which it operates and by which it survives. P.D. Padale, graduate, completed a socio-religious description of the central branch of the Jabalpur Arya Samaj, with particular attention to its rites de passage. Summaries of these papers are projected.

During 1951-i952 the following are the projects being considered by graduate students. A socio-historical study of the now closed Jabalpur Garrison Church, considered as an institution serving a specific cultural group; and A socio-historical study of an English-speaking church, with attention to the conditions attending the shift from an Anglo-Indian to an Indian congregation after Indian independence.

The following are the senior theses projected. Rural-urban differences in rites de passage of Telugu-speaking Christians; The effects of urbanisation upon Telnga Christian Marriage Rituals; Hindu Akharas of Jabalpur, an institutional study; A description of the economic base of a self-supporting Hindi-speaking Urban Congregation; The social teachings of Jesus and their present implementation in the Mar Thoma Church. The last is the single study for which field work in Jabalpur is not required.

Departmental Project

All workers in the Department of Organised Research operate in the major departmental problem, which is, the spatial distribution of sacred locations in the city and environs of Jabalpur, C.P., and their relation to specifically urban processes and cultural areas. It is anticipated that several years will be required for the gathering of data pertinent to this departmental problem.

Finally, it may be mentioned that it is the policy of this department not to release its findings until they are sufficiently verified with empirical evidences.

Notes

1. Subscription for membership to the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism, Rs. 4 per annum
2. Subscriptions and Donations should be sent to the treasurer: Rev. A.D. HUNT, 87, Cantonments, Benares.
3. Enquiries about the Society and its work should be addressed to the Secretary Rev. R.C. DAS, 129, Dashashwamedh, Benares,

THe PILGRIM is sent free to members of the Society. Complaints as to non-receipt, corrections or changes of address and communications about the paper and literary contributions and applications to the membership of the Society should be sent to:

P. Chenchiah, M.L.,
Advocate,
Editor ‘The Pilgrim’,
28, Halls Road,
Egmore, Madras