The Pilgrim

The Quarterly Bulletin of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

The Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Patrons: The Metropolitan of India, Calcutta Bishop BRENTON T. BADLEY, Delhi.

† President: Bishop CLEMENT D. ROCKEY, Lucknow.

† Secretary: Dr. J.E. McELDOWNEY, Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur

† Treasurer: Dr. C.H. HAZLETT, A. P. Mission, Mainpuri, U.P.

† Convener, Benares Institute: Rev. R.C. DAS, M.A., Ramkatora, Benares Cantonment.

† Editor of the Pilgrim: Rev. J.S. MOON, M.A., Ramkatora, Benares

Special Representatives:

Church of India, Burma and Ceylon:

• The Lord Bishop of Lucknow, Allahabad.
• Dr. A.J. Appasamy, Palamcottah.

Church of Scotland Mission:

• Rev. Alexander McLeish, Church House, Nasirabad (Raj.)

Kellogg Memorial Church:

• Rev. J.V. Dibben, 87, Banaras Cantonment

Serampore College: † Prof. V.E. Dutt, M.A., B.D. Leonard Theological College: The Secretary. Evangelism: † Mr. M.C. Dharmaraj, Y.M.C.A. Women’s Work: † Mrs. W. Stanley Gould, Ewing Christian College, Allahabad The Tract Societies: Rev. Paul Das, B.A., 19, Clive Road, Allahabad South India, Special Representative: † Mr. S.J. Daurisami, N.M.S. House, Royapettah, Madras National Christian Council: Dr. M.T. Titus, Nelson Square, Nagpur Henry Martyn School of Islamics: Dr. R. Donaldson, Aligarh, U.P.

† Denotes member of Executive

Editorial Board: Bishop Clement D. Rockey, Dr. A.J. Appasamy Mrs. W.S. Gould Rev. C.G. Diehl (Madras) Dr. J.E. McEldowney Prof. V.E. Dutt Rev. A.M. Ward (Bangalore) Mr. R.C. Das Rev. J.S. Moon (Editor)

The objects of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism are,

1. To create and maintain adequate interest in the study of Hinduism by Christians
2. To carry on the study in a sympathetic, constructive and critical way for the purpose of effective evangelism and
3. To achieve the above objects in co-operation with Church and Mission bodies.

The activities of the Society are,

1. To conduct in Benares (and if possible in a South Indian centre) an Institute of Hinduism stressing its popular aspects
2. Publish The Pilgrim, a quarterly bulletin, bearing on Hinduism, its relation To Christianity and work among Hindus and
3. To encourage the organisation of a permanent School of Hinduism.

The minimum annual subscription is Rs. 2/-. Membership fees and gifts may be sent to the treasurer, Dr. C.H. Hazlett, A.P. Mission, Mainpuri, U.P.

Every member will receive The Pilgrim free.

The Secretary points out that the views expressed in the Minutes represent the Executive’s opinion so far as he has been able to ascertain it.

Editor.

Executive Meeting of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Held at Mainpuri, Nov. 8th 1946

The Secretary opened the meeting with prayer.

1. Roll: Dr. C.H. Hazlett, host; Mr. R.C. Das, Benares: Dr. Murray T. Titus, Nagpur; Prof. V. Dutt, Serampore, and Dr. J.E. McEldowney, Jabalpur. Rev. J.S. Moon, Mrs, W.S. Gould, and Rev. Paul Das expressed regrets that they could not attend Dr. Murray T. Titus was elected Chairman

2. Reports: The Secretary’s report circulated prior to the meeting was taken as read. Mr. R.C. Das presented the report of the Benares Institute. The Treasurer and the Editor of the pilgrim did not make reports but are to have them for reference later. Business arising out of the above reports.

3. Membership of the Executive and Representative Council.

   1. In view of the fact that the invitations sent to Mr. Durasami to become a member of the Executive did not reach him, the Secretary was instructed to write again.

   2. Since Rev. Robert Clark expressed serious question whether he should become a member of the Executive it was decided to approach Mr. M.G. Dharmaraj of Nagpur inviting him to become a member of the Executive as representing Evangelistic work at large.

   3. Serampore College has named Prof. V. Dutt as it’s representative to the Representative Council. Leonard Theological College has named Dr. James E. McEldowney as its member. The Secretary was asked to secure the names of representatives from Bishop’s College and Union Theological College.

   4. Kellogg Church has named Rev. J.V. Dibben as its member of the Council

   5. The World Dominion Press has recently become a member through Rev. Alexander McLeish who will represent them.

4. Action pertaining to NCC action regarding the new School for the Study of Hinduism.

   1. The Society requests the NCC to consider especially the Preamble (see printed report of the Nagpur April Minutes in The Pilgrim, July 1946) of the Constitution inasmuch as this puts in detail certain purposes and plans for the School.

   2. The Society urges, the NCC to approve the recommendations of its Theological Education Committee and implement the scheme at the earliest opportunity.

   3. The Society calls attention to the Alternate Scheme and recommends that the NCC in its November session, 1946, rename this the interim scheme, and implement it immediately in a manner not prejudicial to the carrying out of the fuller scheme eventually.

   Two reasons make this advisable. First, the full scheme may require a number of years before it can be put into operation, which would keep real progress in suspense, Second, in view of the generous offers of Dr. Robert Hume and Dr. George Briggs to serve three years each in India without salary (though transport expenses, house rent, and hill allowances would be required) in connection with the Society and School some immediate steps should be taken.

   In view of the above the Society takes the following action (see 5).

5. Dr. Robert Hume, and Dr. George Briggs, visiting professors etc.

   1. The Secretary should point out to Dr. Hume that the Nagpur minutes envisage the early establishment of a School and that a permanent School does not yet exist.

   2. The Secretary of the Theological Committee of the NCC and the Secretary of the Society should investigate ways of bringing one or both of these professors to India in the very near future, Financial arrangements to cover passage, house rent and hill allowances should be considered, keeping the following sources in mind: -

      1. A direct request to Mission Boards involved

      2. A request to the Theological Committee of the NCC that they consider one or both of these professors as among those they contemplate bringing out from the west for short term service in Theological Colleges.

      3. Theological College(s) with which these men might be associated should be approached to see what financial part they are willing to bear for the privilege of having the professor temporarily associated in a partial way with their institution.

   3. Dr. Murray T. Titus was asked to discover which Theological College would desire such a visiting professor. The arrangement would include an understanding between the Society, the NCC, and the institution involved, regarding the use made of the services of such a professor by each organisation. Not only must accommodation and facilities for the professor be kept in mind but scholarship help and research facilities for students as well.

   4. Dr. Hume’s interest in living in Benares was considered.

   5. It was suggested that in, promoting an interim scheme it might be well to associate an Indian Staff Member even in an honorary capacity, from the beginning, with the understanding that such an arrangement does not involve commitments at the time the permanent School comes into being.

   6. The Secretary referred to correspondence regarding the return of Mr. Presler to India. Mr. Presler has maintained his interest in the study and has pursued studies qualifying him further in matters of research, It was felt that he might make a significant contribution to the School and that his name should be mentioned to proper authorities when the School begins to take shape.

6. The Benares Institute. Mr. R.C. Das submitted his report and financial statement. He pointed out that there were several reasons why the expenses were considerably higher than a year ago. The Executive voted to pay the account, though it was agreed that the Society must reduce the per-capita expenses if the Institute is to be held again. Arrangements for 1947 are still under discussion. When the place is decided upon, plans for the Institute should go forward rapidly so that by the first of March the full programme will be drawn up to include the finest scholars available. Many missions should then be approached to enlist many missionaries to attend. In this connection the Secretary was asked to prepare a small pamphlet about the Society, the Institute, and other related matters.

7. Action to rent Ram Katora, Benares. In view of the plan to establish a permanent School for the Study of Hinduism and the desire to keep the way, open to have a suitable location in Benares, it was decided to approach the mission concerned and offer to rent half of Ram Katora, now occupied by Mr. Das, paying a nominal rent of Rs. 25|- per month, to which Mr. V. Dutt offered to raise Rs. 10/- per month for one year. As to the use of the property the following suggestions were made: -

   1. The Society might arrange with Mr. Das to stay on and provide a haven for those who visit Benares in connection with the study of Hinduism. However, Mr. Das informed the Society that he is planning to open an Ashram near Benares and that he is contemplating moving to other quarters.

   2. If Dr. Hume comes and wishes to reside in Benares, the Society would consider renting such a place as the above for him.

   3. If neither of the above materialise, the Executive felt that it might be wise to rent the property and keep it vacant in order to hold it for possible later developments.

8. Summer Lectures in Kodaikanal. The Society proposes to sponsor a lecture series at Kodai during the summer of 1947 and budgeted up to Rs. 350 towards it. This involves securing a suitable convener, for which: office the name of Dr. A.T. Fishman, Secretary of the Kodai Conference, has been suggested, and also lecturers. It is hoped that Dr. Appasamy will be able to help.

9. Summer Lectures in Landour, Owing to the heavy costs in 1946 it was decided that plans for 1947 should be organised along different lines, preferably weekly or semi-weekly lectures in connection with the Language School.

10. Editorship of The Pilgrim. The executive voted unanimously to accept Mr. Moon’s offer to continue as editor into 1947. It is hoped that a new editor can be selected who will work with Mr. Moon and then take over from him as he goes on furlough.

11. Books given to the Society. Mr. Das reported the receipt of a number of books on Hinduism from the World. Dominion Press and Dr. McEldowney reported the receipt of six books for the new School from Dr. Hume and Dr. Bleming. The thanks of the Society is to be sent to both.

12. Membership. All members of the Society are urged to introduce the Society to others. It was suggested that there might well be a member specialising in the study of Hinduism on each Evangelistic Committee of each Provincial Representative Christian Council who would promote the work of the Society in that area.

After prayer by Mr. Das the meeting stood adjourned.

J.E. McELDOWNEY.

The Epistle of Pilgrimage

(Continued)

BY THE EDITOR.

There can be no doubt then about the importance of the Jewish tradition for Hebrews. Yet if the epistle insists that Christ is to be understood as the culmination of the process of revelation initiated in the Old Testament period, it insists still more that process is to be understood in the light of the supreme revelation. Christ is not only the climax of Jewish religion. He is also judge of that religion. We may compare the opening verses of Hebrews with Paul’s words in Galatians IV 4: “But when the fullness of the time came, God sent forth his Son …”. Those who in these later days would simply substitute Indian scriptures for the Old Testament have certainly understood neither Paul nor the author of Hebrews. But then too we may ask, ought not Christians to be prepared to read Paul’s word ‘fullness’ in a wider sense - if need be in a wider sense even than Paul himself dreamed of? “Coming events cast their shadow before” says Campbell. For the writer of Hebrews Christ is the supreme event: the Jewish dispensation is as the shadow cast by that event. Can we be so bold as to suggest that in some sense that ‘shadow’ fell on other lands than Palestine? So much of our thought is governed by our sense of Time as a straight line reaching to … Infinity. History demands this simple geometrical concept, but sometimes we might employ others to advantage. Thus, in his little book, ‘The Christ at Chartres’ Denis Saurat speaks of an old French priest who, suggests that Christ’s coming should be likened to the striking of a gong. The sound flows in all directions. Certainly the use of such imagery helps us to understand a little more clearly why for instance in the New Testament the prophets are not just regarded as the greatest of moral preachers but as men who foretell however dimly and gropingly the great coming event. And so perhaps after all we may have to admit that other scriptures can be tutors to bring men to Christ. But neither they, nor even the Old Testament can claim to contain and hold Christ. They can announce His coming.

Before we leave this point we may note its bearing on what to most of us must seem the strangest and least convincing argument in Hebrews, that about high-priesthood after the order of Melchisidek. We can admire the writer’s ingenuity in deducing so much from the silence of the Old Testament about this man, but otherwise the argument is not likely to appeal to us. Yet it does in a way bring out what we have been trying to say above. In his genealogy Matthew traces our Lord’s descent from Abraham. Luke in a more ‘universal’ frame of mind traces it from Adam. The emphasis in Hebrews, is the same as in Luke. Christ’s priesthood is derived not by descent from the priestly caste of the Levites but from Christ’s very nature … it is universal, ‘after the order of Melchisidek’, who was not a Jew.

We might indeed, at the risk of being accused of employing the same ingenuity in extracting much out of little, add as a note that Melchisidek was a priest-king. In earliest times such priest-kings had eventually to surrender their lives as a sacrifice for the welfare of their people. Doubtless the annual ceremony at Abydos in Egypt was a commemoration of that ceremony though the king’s life was no longer sacrificed. Now the rationalist press seizes upon these facts of ancient ritual to point out that Christianity is but a rationalisation of such archaic and barbarous customs. That is doubtless putting it the wrong way round. Those kings may have died most unwillingly for their people and yet there is a certain pathos in their sacrifice which makes that sacrifice in some ways a ‘shadow’ of the greater sacrifice. And once more this is something which goes far beyond the confines of Judaism.

It is now necessary to consider ‘shadow’ in its more Platonic sense. According to Plato the world of the senses is a moving image of an unmoving eternal original. The Platonist like many a Hindu seeker prays that he may be led from the unreal to the real, and he seeks that real in what is permanent and unmoving. Otto in the passage which we have referred to earlier suggests that the Christian and the Bhakti goals are incompatible, and that ‘Isvara is a Saviour of those who suffer the torments of samsara and are strangers to their own true home’. His thesis of incompatibility may be true, yet some of the words we have just quoted might be almost taken from Hebrews. “These all died in faith having confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims on the earth.” … now they desire a better country, that is, a heavenly … “For he looked for the city which hath the foundations.” It was for such a city that Plato was seeking in his Republic, and he finds the foundations in those things which are not subject to change. He regarded with horror the teaching of Heraclitus that all things give way, nothing remaineth. Rest from motion, there is a suggestion of that too (and yet with difference which we shall have to note) in chapters three and four of Hebrews. “There remaineth therefore a Sabbath rest for the people of God. For he that is entire into his rest hath himself also rested from his works a God did from His. Let us therefore give diligence to enter into that rest.”

The contrast between work and rest reminds us of the attack which John Macmurray makes upon Platonic ‘dualism’ in his ‘Clue to History’. He argues that the Greek thinkers wrongly sought the goal of life in an aristocratic leisure of contemplation rather than in work. The two, work and contemplation should go together. When the author of Hebrews speaks of God as working for six days and resting on the seventh he is certainly putting the two together. As God rests He sees that his creation is good. It is doubtless easy to misrepresent Plato’s theories. The Greeks have left many imperishable ‘works’ which, Plato would have claimed, were the fruit of the contemplation of the Eternal Forms or Ideas. In order to gainsay Plato at least one would have to go into the whole question of where our values come from. For Christians, and especially for the writer of Hebrews, values are bound up with the will of God, and our author argues that work in this time-process should spring from a consciousness of that will. “See, saith he, that you make all things according to the pattern that was shown thee in the mount.” (VIII 5) When he speaks of earthly things as a copy and shadow of heavenly things he introduces a time element which is Jewish rather than Platonic. So there is progress in evaluation; certain ‘copies’ were true and real enough in their time, now they are outworn, and ‘nigh unto vanishing away.’

The status of our time-process, of earth as contrasted with heaven, that is a topic in which this epistle, Platonism and Hindu thought share an interest. For the latter two, at least, the time-process is secondary and derivative. It is not easy - certainly not for a Westerner - to capture anything like an exact sense of the term maya. It would seem that Shankara’s use of the term in the sense of the unreal and illusory nature of the empirical world marks one stage in the development of the thought, and Western thinkers have fastened too exclusively upon this stage as if it were the final word. In her book, ‘Indian and Western Philosophy’ Miss B. Heimann has an interesting discussion on the meaning of maya from a philological point of view. She stresses the meaning of the root ma, to measure, as found in the Rigveda, Mayas are measurable things and as such secondary to the unmeasurable primeval being. On this basis we may say that maya is the fiction of separated isolated beings. We may note that many Western writers also stress the fictitious nature of separated individuality. The victory on such a view lies with the ‘universal’ as against the ‘particular’ and historical. Individual appearances are eventually dissolved into the one ultimate reality.

For many this is no very terrible prospect, and may even be desirable. Yet when Hebrews speaks about entering into rest, the writer cannot be thinking of any such oblivion of the individual. Like other writers of the New Testament he implies a doctrine of personality. Thus, he borrows from the Psalmist and reiterates the question, What is man? “Thou madest him a little lower than the angels; thou crowned him with glory and honour …”(II.7) And he adds: “But we see not, yet all things subjected to him.” In the book to which we have just referred Miss Heimann argues that the great difference between Indian and Western thought is that the latter is anthropological - ‘Man is the measure of all things’ - whilst Indian thought is cosmical - man is one manifestation of the atman among others. The author of Hebrews does not make man as he is the measure of all things … “We see not, yet all things subjected to him.” He adds however: “But we behold him who hath been made a little lower than the angels, even Jesus …” and later he says of those that accept Christ that “he is not ashamed to call them brethren.” Christ is the measure of all things (we have already had this thought with regard to religions) and man in Christ.

Even so the writer of Hebrews would agree with many Eastern teachers that it is difficult for man as man to come into God’s presence. We are reminded once more of the consistently stern element in his teaching. Only with him, it is not because there must be an oblivion of the creature in the presence of the Absolute, an oblivion which in some might be thought desirable, but because there must be judgement in God’s presence. His is an echo of Isaiah’s cry: “Woe is me! For I am undone: because I am a man of unclean lips and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips; for mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts.” There is the preoccupying thought, How shall man come into God’s presence? The thought is well expressed in the hymn:

    Eternal Light! Eternal Light!
    How pure the soul must be,
    When placed within Thy searching sight,
    It shrinks not; but with calm delight,
    Can live, and look on Thee!

    O how shall I, whose native sphere
    Is dark, whose mind is dim,
    Before the Ineffable appear,
    And on my naked spirit bear
    The uncreated beam?

And the answer in Hebrews is echoed in the hymn: -

    There is a way for man to rise
    To that sublime abode:
    An offering and a sacrifice,
    A Holy Spirit's energies,
    An advocate with God.

It is because the author of Hebrews accepts the Jewish conviction that there is a discontinuity between the divine and the human which no ‘immanence’ in itself can overcome that he stresses the reality of sacrifice. He does not, so far as we can see, share Paul’s great thought of ‘Christ in us’, but he certainly emphasises with Paul the complementary thought of ‘Christ for us’, and that is the dominant note of the epistle. Christ is our High Priest, Christ is also our Sacrifice.

That our salvation should be thus bound up with an outward, objective, fact, with something accomplished once for all in a particular place and at a specific time, that is a thought which our writer obviously took for granted himself and assumed in his immediate readers. Some theological writers, knowing how strongly such an idea is challenged in the modern world, express disappointment that the author of Hebrews does not show more explicitly how we are saved by Christ’s priesthood and sacrifice. With regard to this we may note two points. First no Christian can really give a rationale of his belief in the efficacy of Christ’s sacrifice, though he regards that sacrifice as being the very foundation of his spiritual life. Thus, when in chapter IX verse 12 it speaks of Christ ‘having obtained eternal redemption’ (for man) it is futile to ask concerning the word lutrosin, which means ‘ransom’; to whom was the ransom paid? The thought is that of deliverance obtained at a great price. We cannot really go beyond that. And we are not evading. It may, well be that those who demand a rationale and will not believe without it may yet deep down in their hearts acknowledge the need for help from a source outside themselves - a lifeline, as it were. That there is such a sense of need in the heart of man, however little it may be consciously acknowledged, is indeed the justification for our preaching. In reading through an old report lately I came across this sentence: “A Hindu who cannot be induced to regard sin as a wilful offence against a Holy Person finds no attraction in, as he feels no need for, the sacrifice of Calvary.” We have here a statement of attitude of mind which is one of the greatest discouragements to the missionary enterprise in India. But we go on preaching because we believe that deep down in men’s hearts there is the sense of need.

Again whilst the epistle gives no direct answer to some of the questions we are anxious to put, it does have something to say on the subject with which we are here particularly concerned, the presenting of the fact of Christ’s sacrifice to people who by their upbringing are more interested in what we have called ‘universals’, than in particular details of history. The writer’s whole argument is that the outward in itself is powerless to, effect redemption. If Christ’s one sacrifice is truly efficacious it is so because it takes place not only, in the outward world, in this time-process of ours, but also ‘through the eternal Spirit’ (Chapter IX v. 14). Not only is Christ’s bloodshed; that bloodshedding in itself is sacramental of the Will sacrificed, uttered to God. So chapter X vv. 9 and 10: “… then hath he said. Lo, I come to do thy will … By which will we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all.”

We notice how in such a passage the author keeps the two aspects together. In this connection one point of interest presents itself, namely his use of the metaphor of the veil. The reference of course is to the entering of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement through the veil of the Temple into the Holy of Holies. Two particular passages stand out, “… the hope set before us; which we have as an anchor of the soul, a hope both sure and steadfast and entering into that which is within the veil; whither as a forerunner Jesus entered for us …” (VI 18-20). “Having therefore, brethren, boldness to enter into the holy place by the blood of Jesus, by the way which he dedicated for us, a new and living way through the veil, that is to say, his flesh …” (X 19-20). The words at the close of the second passage, ‘that is to say, his flesh’ are sufficiently ambiguous to have given rise to a certain amount of speculation. Is the author making a gnostic suggestion that it is the flesh which veils us from God, and that we must break through this veil as Christ has done? Nairne discussing the matter quotes Vaughan’s ‘Cock Crowing’:

    Only this eye which thou hast broke
    And must be broken yet in me,
    This eye I say is all the close
    And cloud which shadows me from thee.

The poet clearly answers our question in the affirmative. But Nairne points us to Westcott’s conclusion that by ‘his flesh’ is intended, not the veil but the living way. Doubtless the truth is that the imagery of our writer is rich and vivid, and he has no opportunity to do justice to each image. He passes from one to another … each of them wonderfully suggestive … and part of the price to be paid is a certain ambiguity. Here we may agree on some compromise. The author doubtless regards the flesh as subordinate to the spirit, but it is essential, it is so to speak a stepping-stone of the spirit. Though for that matter the metaphor of stepping-stone is too lifeless, our writer speaks of ‘a living way’. The body is not simply something to be rid of, it can be associated in the work of the spirit. Once more we have to emphasise the value of our time-process, even whilst it is overshadowed by eternity. Christ’s sacrifice takes place once for all on Calvary, but it also takes place in and through ‘the Eternal Spirit’.

(To be concluded).

The Early History of Bhakti

Dr. A.J. APPASAMY, Archdeacon of Palamcottah.

The history of religion in India begins quite early. Thanks to the exertions of modern archaeologists the remains of two cities, Mahenjodaro and Harappa, which flourished in the third millennium B.C., have been discovered. Unfortunately no books of this period are available; it is only in books that the deeper thoughts and longings of men find expression. Even public places of worship, too, do not seem to have existed in these cities. At least there are no buildings whose plans suggest to us that they were once used for worship. The people might have had small shrines connected with their dwelling houses. But a great many images, statues, seals and copper tablets have been discovered. From these we can draw a more or less clear picture of the popular religion of the day.

The earliest religious document of India is the Rig Veda (about 1200 B.C.): This consists of over a thousand hymns addressed to various nature-gods by the early Aryans soon after they had settled down in India. They were impressed by the different phenomena of Nature the beautiful dawn, the raging storm, and the majestic sun. These they began to personify and worship. They were a simple, naive, happy people. They were busy settling, down in the country. They were eager to possess plenty of cattle, to have good crops, to be surrounded by children, and to enjoy life. There was nothing deep about their aspirations or prayers. All the petitions they addressed to their gods were for material prosperity and temporal blessings. One of their gods, Varuna, stood out for a while distinguished for his noble qualities. He had a sense of right and wrong and was angry when people transgressed the moral law it was necessary to obtain his forgiveness for moral lapses. This god, however, never came to dominate the Vedic pantheon,

Gradually the naive spontaneous piety seen in the hymns of the Rig Veda crystallised into a rigid and mechanical legalism of the Brahmanas. Many sacrifices were evolved, and detailed rules were laid down for their performance. The importance: of the priestly caste was magnified.

It is about this time that the Upanishads begin to be written down. The Aryans have now settled in India on the plains of the Ganges and Jumna. They are no longer a new race adjusting themselves to the conditions of a foreign country and climate. The spontaneity and joyousness of the early Vedic period has disappeared. The priestly caste dominates Hindu society. Various sacrifices and ceremonies are performed, the minutest details being governed by law. The doctrine of Karma has found a secure lodgement in the country and has thrown a blight over the Hindu people. It is believed that men would have to suffer or enjoy the consequences of their deeds in successive births.

Naturally a reaction to these various conditions set in. Thinkers arose, often from the ranks of laymen, who grappled with the problems of life and death. They were not prepared to accept the laws of the Brahmins without questioning them. They were not satisfied with the elaborate ceremonies and sacrifices which had come into existence. It was not possible for them to go back to the simple, happy, confident outlook of the old Vedic poets. New longings and ideals surged within them. They discussed questions about God and man and liberation with remarkable vigour and independence, going courageously wherever they thought the truth led them. The Upanishads bear evidence of this period of alert and bold thinking. There were many seers who lived with their disciples, often in forests, pursuing diligently the spiritual quest. The instruction which they gave to their disciples has been handed down and: written out as the Upanishads. At least thirteen of these Upanishads are of great antiquity. They are the source-books for many of the religious and philosophic systems of India. Every thinker of subsequent times has traced his doctrine to the Upanishads.

The Upanishads show a marked variety of religious beliefs. We find in them the beginnings of Advaita, the doctrine, which teaches that there is only one Reality, Brahman and that all else is unreal. Though Sankara who developed this doctrine into a philosophical structure came only in the eighth century A.D., already we see in the Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad passages which point to an Advaita doctrine. The individual soul is identical with the Divine Soul. As long as the individual soul thinks it is different from the Divine Soul, so long is it caught in the cycle of births and deaths. In a flash of spiritual insight a person must realise that he and every other person is completely identical with Brahman, the Divine Soul. This knowledge will give him entire freedom from the misery of existence. He who has attained this knowledge in the depths of his heart will no longer be born again and again to complete his spiritual education. For indeed the moment he attains this knowledge his religious training is complete. It will be seen that according to this way of thinking Jnana or knowledge is the supreme means of salvation.

Another doctrine which is found in the Upanishads and which developed later into the Samkhya system is Atheistic Dualism. There are two realities, Prakriti and Purusha, Nature and Soul. The world can be fully explained in these terms. Prakriti has in the course of natural evolution developed into the world as we see it. Men with their various sense organs and intellectual activities and the elements such as earth, air, fire, water and ether have all by themselves gradually developed from the primordial matter known as Prakriti. This Prakriti evolves by itself and the light of Purusha falls upon it. Prakriti is like a blind man who can’t move about without help. Left to himself the blind man is confined to one place. Purusha is like a lame man who can see well, but he too cannot move about. Left to himself he too is helpless. But if the lame man could sit on the shoulder of the blind man and direct his movements, they could go wherever they please. The lame man gives clear directions as to where they should go, and the blind man willingly carries out these instructions. Such is the relation between Prakriti and Purusha. These two realities are enough to account for all the facts of life. There is no need to speak of the existence of a God.

Another doctrine which is found in the Upanishads, and here we come to our subject, is that of a belief in a personal God who must be worshipped with Bhakti. This doctrine is found in the two later Upanishads, the Katha Upanishad and the Svetasvatara Upanishad.

The Katha Upanishad was probably written about 500-300 B.C., during that great period of religious activity throughout the world when the Hebrew prophets in Palestine, Plato in Greece, Buddha in India, and Confucius in China flourished. The Svetasvatara Upanishad was probably written about 250-200 B.C.

About the Katha Upanishad Mr. C. Rajagopalachari, for some time Premier of Madras, writes in Tamil “There are ten principal Upanishads. Among them Katha Upanishad is regarded as the best. When I was free From political work I had a desire to translate Katha Upanishad in easy Tamil style and to provide a commentary for those who could not read it in the original Sanskrit. As I began the task, I realised that my having undertaken it was a serious mistake for my knowledge of the Scriptures was inadequate, and my spiritual education was far from ripe? It became clear to me that the work was quite beyond my capacity. Yet I have, completed it in a way, because of the strong urge within me.”¹

The Katha Upanishad opens with a story. Naciketas was a Brahman youth who offended his father, a priest. This priest had given as an offering some of his cows which were thin and worn-out. Naciketas could not bear the thought that his father had been so mean and had sent such poor cows as his offering to another Brahman priest. He therefore, himself volunteered to go with the cows and to serve the priest to whom the cows were sent as an offering. In this way he thought he would compensate for the poverty and meanness of his father’s gift. So two or three times he asked his father to which priest he could go. These persistent questions on the part of Naciketas troubled his father. They implied a criticism of the gift of cows which he had made, a criticism which he was not any too pleased to hear. They also implied that he must be prepared to lose his son who out of a noble heart volunteered to make up for the deficiency of his father’s gift by his own personal service to the priest. This also the father did not like. Being troubled and disturbed by the persistent questioning he answered angrily, “To Death do I give you” He probably did not mean anything definitely or seriously. But it was just like Naciketas to take his father’s word in right earnest and to walk away immediately in implicit obedience to the land of Death. Arrived at the house of Yama, the God of Death, he found that the god was absent, and no one looked after him. So Naciketas remained for three nights in the house of Death, starving and hungry. When Yama returned and found the Brahman youth unfed, he was greatly worried, for was it not necessary to entertain lavishly a Brahman guest? Behold, this Brahman guest had been greatly neglected! He offered to Naciketas three gifts as recompense for such gross neglect. As his first gift Naciketas asked that he might be reconciled to his father. This is a further trait of nobility in the character of Naciketas, The desired boon was granted to him immediately. Naciketas asked as his second gift the meaning of a particular sacrifice and this also was explained to him readily. As his third gift Naciketas desired to know what happened to man after death. Naciketas

    This doubt there is about a man departed,
    Some say, 'He is', some, 'He does not exist'
    This would I know, instructed well by thee:
    Of the three gifts, this gift is the third.

²

Obviously the god of Death, if his existence was believed in, was the most competent person to answer this question. He would know better than anyone else what was in store for men after death. It was quite a happy idea on the part of Naciketas to have sought light from the right source on this most perplexing of human questions. But it distressed Yama beyond measure, and he sought to put off Naciketas by the offer of other gifts:

    Centenarian sons and grandsons choose thou,
    Many cattle, elephants, gold and horses:
    Choose thou far-flung dominion of the earth,
    And live thyself as many autumns as thou wilt.
    Or, if thou thinkest other boon equal to this,
    Choose riches and a long extended life:
    On the great earth, O Naciketas, be thou king
    Of thy desires I make thee free-enjoyer,
    Whatever desires in mortal world are hard to win, -
    For all desires at pleasure make request:
    These lovely girls, with chariots and lutes,
    Such as are not obtainable by men, -
    By these, by me bestowed, be waited on:
    O Naciketas, ask not about dying.

³

Naciketas was not so easily led away from his great quest. Though but a youth, a profound sense of the unreality of all these gifts had awakened in him, and he persisted in his original request. He was not prepared to accept as his third gift anything else but an answer to the great question he had asked:

    Ephemeral things! They wear away, O. Death,
    Whatever vigour of his powers a man may have.
    All life moreover at the best is brief:
    Thine be the chariots, thine the dance and song!

    Never with wealth can man be satisfied.
    Shall we get wealth if we have seen thee?
    Shall we even live as long as thou shalt reign?
    That boon then must I choose and that alone.

    Drawing near the agelessness of the immortals,
    What ageing mortal here below that understands,
    Weighing the joys of beauty and of love,
    Would delight in an over-long life?

    Tell me this thing whereon they doubt, O Death,
    What is the meaning of the great transition:
    This boon which penetrates the mystery,
    Naught else then that doth Naciketas choose.

⁴

Yama was unable to withstand this persistence. He could not very well fail to fulfil his promise. Unwilling though he was to reveal what happened after death he had to redeem his promise and grant the third boon. The rest of the Katha Upanishad sets forth the answer which Yama made to Naciketas. We, may now trace the religious experience underlying the Upanishad.

The Mystery of God

The author of this Upanishad is profoundly impressed by the mystery and transcendent greatness of God. He recurs again and again to this theme, God’s being cannot0 be reached or grasped by man without the aid of a spiritual teacher.

    Not taught by an inferior man can He
    Be truly understood, though much considered;
    Save by another taught there's no way thither,
    For he is inconceivably subtler than the subtle.

⁵

So early in the course of the development of religion in India the importance of a Guru or spiritual teacher comes to be accepted. This recognition took place throughout the past history of Hinduism and is still in practice among all schools of Hindu thought. Though it has led to many extravagant lengths it contains the valuable truth that what counts in the spread of religion is personal influence and contact. Real religion can be learnt only from a man who has himself passed through vital spiritual experience and who is willing and able to communicate it to others. In no other way can genuine religious life be awakened in an aspiring soul. Here, however, the point for us to note is that God is mysteriously great, inaccessible to the unaided devotion and thought of a Bhakta. The help of a mature religious teacher is of some use in penetrating to the profound mystery of God. In another passage the author sets forth from a different angle the mystery of God:

    Less than an atom, greater than the great,
    The Self is hid in every creature's heart:
    The striving man beholds Him, freed from sorrow,
    Through the Creator's grace he sees the greatness
    of the Self.

⁶

Here again we see how profoundly this author is impressed by the mystery of God. Being spirit God can be everywhere. He can compress Himself into the minutest space of the atom, or He can spread Himself out over the widest stretches of space. This Spirit, who can be at once as small or as large as He wants to be, is hidden within the heart of man. One who through His grace surrenders himself to God and rests fully in this attitude will alone see Him. To understand the mystery and depth of God’s being His own grace and man’s complete and restful submission to it are needed. Only by such readiness to abandon his own struggle and effort will man be at all, in any measure, capable of attaining a knowledge of God. This thought is carried a step further forward in another passage:

    Not by instruction may this Self be gained,
    Nor intellect, nor by much scripture-learning:
    Whom so He chooses, by him, He may be gained,
    To him this Self reveals His own true person.

    Who has not ceased from evil ways,
    Who is tranquil, unprepared,
    Or he whose mind is not at peace,
    By knowledge cannot win to Him.

⁷

When confronted by the profound mystery of God men begin to think that somehow by their own learning and wisdom they can reach Him. He cannot be reached by everyone; but the man of genuine knowledge who has read the scriptures widely and pondered on them may be in a position to know God. The author of this Upanishad probably came to this conclusion in the early stages of his religious experience. He had sought God through hard study and prolonged meditation and had only experienced a sense of frustration. This is a wrong idea which has again and again dogged the footsteps of religion. It has been felt by many ardent souls the world over that much sacred learning will carry them into the deepest secrets of God. The author here rejects that idea on the basis of his own practical experience. He had tried to walk along the path of knowledge to God and had realised its futility and had become convinced that God is clear only to those to whom he reveals Himself. God’s being is utterly beyond the grasp of man seeking to reach it in his own strength. Even if he pores over endless religious books and masters the intricacies of sacred learning he will be no whit better. Only if God Himself reveals His divine character is any understanding of it possible. This profound truth emerges again and again in the history of Bhakti thought. We note here its very early appearance.

The Practice of Yoga

God is great and mysterious. In and by himself man cannot reach Him. If with the help of an advanced and spiritually mature person he surrenders himself to God and resting fully in his grace seeks to understand such a revelation of Himself as He is willing to make, only then will he reach knowledge of God and not otherwise. For this purpose of resting fully in God and understanding His personality there is a method of Yoga, which he probably practised and the value of which he knew from first-hand experience.

    He who is hard to see, entered into the hidden,
    Set in the cave, dwelling in the deep, ancient,
    Perceiving God through spiritual concentration,
    The wise man leaves behind both joy and sorrow.

⁸

This method of concentration or Yoga, still practised widely in India, is of ancient origin. The discoveries at Mahenjodaro include images of Siva seated in a posture of Yoga. Whether even in those days Yoga as we now know it was practised we have no means of telling.

That people sat in a posture of Yoga even then (about 5000 years ago) may well be inferred from the images which have been unearthed. In this Upanishad however the word Yoga occurs in a religious sense for the first time in the sacred literature of India. Not only does the word itself occur, but many stanzas describe some of the essential practises connected with Yoga. One of the vital parts of Yoga technique is the control of the senses. This control is set forth in this Upanishad as the careful driving of a chariot drawn by powerful horses:

    Know the soul as lord of a chariot,
    The body as the chariot itself;
    Know reason as chariot-driver,
    And the mind as bridle and reins.

    The senses, they say, are the horses,
    The objects of sense are their path;
    The soul yoked with the mind and the senses,
    Learned men call the 'enjoyer'.

    He who has no understanding
    Always of unrestrained mind,
    His senses are out of control,
    Like a charioteer's bad horses.

    But he who has right understanding,
    Always with mind well restrained,
    His senses are under control,
    Like a charioteer's good horses.

    He who has no understanding,
    Careless and ever impure,
    Never attains to that goal,
    But goes on to transmigration.

    But he who has right understanding,
    Always attentive and pure,
    Attains at length to that goal,
    Whence he is no more reborn.

    With reason for chariot-driver,
    The man who has mind well-reined,
    Reaches the end of the journey,
    The highest abode of Vishnu.

⁹

Thus, clearly and beautifully does the seer set forth one stage of the journey that leads to ‘the highest abode of Vishnu.’ This phrase recalls Rig Veda I. 154 where the ‘dear home’ of Vishnu is associated with the friendship of Vishnu. By following the path of Yoga, this author realises, man reaches that stage of the spiritual life in which friendship with God is experienced. The parable of the chariot explains the nature and value of sense-control as a necessary part of the process of meditation. In after ages those who practised Yoga sought, to suppress their senses altogether. The world, they held, was evil and all contact with it must be avoided. To have any connection with the world with its multitude of interests was a spiritual danger. This extreme position, to which a great many later Yogins arrived was not accepted in the Katha Upanishad. Here the various senses of man have a real value; they take him to a destination: but in order that they may do so they should be held under firm control. What this Upanishad advocates is not the suppression of the senses but their right direction. If the chariot driver had stopped all the horses there would have been no movement at all. About the same time as the author of the Katha Upanishad there lived in Greece Plato who wrote a similar parable in his Phaedrus. He said: ‘Our ruling power then drives a pair of horses, one being beautiful and noble and the other quite the opposite in breed and character. Therefore, in our case the driving is necessarily difficult and troublesome’.¹⁰

The explanation of the further stages of Yoga is difficult and technical.

    Beyond the senses are sense-objects,
    Beyond the objects is the mind,
    Beyond the mind is the reason,
    Beyond the reason, the great self.

    Beyond the great is the unexpressed,
    Beyond the unexpressed, the Person,
    Beyond the Person there is nothing;
    That is the end, that is the final goal.

    Hidden in all living beings
    This Self does not shine forth:
    Yet he is seen by subtle seers,
    With subtle keen intelligence.

    The wise man should restrain speech and mind,
    He should restrain it from the knowing self,
    The knowing one he should restrain in the Great Self,
    That he should restrain in the Self of Peace

¹¹

This obscure passage seems to mean that reason is more important than the senses and that our life of instinct and impulse must be under its guidance. But even more significant than reason is intuition. Deep within the self is God who is not the same as the self. He resides within man’s heart and is willing and able to control him. This Divine Self, living within the human heart and yet different from it is mysterious and inexpressible, We reach Him by a process of intuition which is deeper and farther reaching than reason. This Divine Self must be made the centre of human life. Man must yield himself to Him, dwell on Him in recollected thought and seek his direction for unselfish living. The Divine Self, so different from us and yet immanent in our hearts, is fundamentally one with us in nature. Such we may surmise, was the insight which the author of the Katha Upanishad reached in the course of his own spiritual experience.

Thus, Yoga as this Upanishad understands it consisted mainly of two parts, the control of the senses and the recognition by intuition of the immanent soul, The technique of Yoga was considerably elaborated in later ages. Even in the Svetasvatara Upanishad of which we shall speak in a moment, we find a considerable growth in the details of Yoga method. But at: this stage we should note that the author has practised and understood the essential content of, Yoga and that he realises its immense helpfulness in attaining a knowledge of the mysterious God, always difficult of access.

And thus the story ends. Naciketas has asked, ‘What happens after death?’ a question apparently simple and yet exceedingly difficult from the persistence with which it has been asked all the world over and from the variety of answers which have been given to it. In this old story Yama in answering the question propounds the depth and obscurity of the nature of God and of the difficulty of understanding Him. But he points out that the man who, realising the grace of God and yielding himself to it, engages in continual meditation and understands God’s real nature will be immortal. He will escape from the cycle of births and deaths and will rest in perpetual peace. Thus, after death there awaits eternal peace for the man who has come to know something of the true being of God.

The word Bhakti does not yet occur in Hindu religious literature. For that we have to wait for another couple of hundred years. In the Svetasvatara Upanishad we shall see the actual word used. But already here in this Upanishad we note all the essential doctrines of living Bhakti faith. There is a God of grace who is the creator of the world. He exercises choice, separating those to whom he desires to reveal Himself. He lives within the human heart and yet is different from it. The human soul and the divine soul are like two people drinking together the order of the righteous world, in that they are subject to the requirements of a moral universe. This divine Being cannot be reached by mere learning. He can only be reached by that complete surrender to Him which in after ages is described as Bhakti. Such a yielding up of the human soul to God results in genuine peace and joy. As the centuries pass we shall see these doctrines realised with greater or lesser fullness or intensity, sometimes running to extravagant and wild frenzy and at other times kept well under moral direction. But already we see this ancient seer experiencing real religion in some of its profoundest aspects.

The Beginnings of Bhakti

The word Bhakti occurs for the first time in the Svetasvatara Upanishad. This book was the last of the classical Upanishads and was probably written about 250-200 B.C. by an unknown author. We shall study this short but important treatise with the same interest and care with which explorers trace a river to its source.

Though the word Bhakti does not occur earlier than the Svetasvatara Upanishad the idea of the love of God is already present in early Hindu texts. Even in the Rig Veda we read these words: - ‘Dyaus is my father’¹² and ‘Aditi the boundless is father, mother and son’.¹³ In the Upanishads the devout meditation of a number of things such as mind, the sun, the moon, food and vital breath, all considered as Brahman is set forth. Meditation of this kind is likely to arouse admiration and even love, There is a famous passage in the Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad: ‘That self is dearer than a son, is dearer than wealth, is dearer than all else, since this self is nearer. If, of one who speaks of anything else than the self as dear, one should say, “He will lose what he holds dear”, he would indeed be likely to do so. One should reverence the self alone as dear. He who reverences the self alone as dear - what he holds dear, verily, is not perishable’¹⁴ Here the inner soul of man is regarded as being dearer than everything in the world son, wealth and everything else. And this inner soul is the path of approach to the Divine Soul. Now in the same Upanishad there is another passage in which some wise men of old did not desire children, saying to themselves: “What shall we do with offspring, we whose is this soul, this world?”. They, verily, rising above the desire for sons and the desire for wealth, and the desire for worlds lived the life of mendicants.¹⁵ These men gave up the world that they might reach God. We may well suppose that in doing this they were moved by a love for Him.

Let us try and study the Svetaspvtara Upanishad as a human document describing the struggles, longings, failures and achievements of an earnest soul. It is no doubt very difficult to reconstruct the religious experience lying behind this and other ancient books. They have all along been considered as authoritative sources of philosophy, and we forget that there is a real religious experience behind them The philosophical formulations of later days have overwhelmed the original religious, experience and have almost covered it up. An endeavour should, however, be made to forget the careful intellectual, formulations which have been made on the basis of these ancient books and to reach the heart of the seers who wrote them.

The author of Svetasvatara Upanishad begins by following the path of Jnana. By knowing God one is released from all fetters.¹⁶ All the other classical Upanishads had already been written. From the fact that again and again this author quotes from them, we are not wrong in supposing that he was familiar with the doctrine of Knowledge which they had already set forth. The Upanishads emphasise the importance of knowledge. Knowledge is the key of salvation. By understanding the real secrets of the universe man reaches the goal which is destined for him. This knowledge is reached by meditation.

    As oil in sesame seeds, as butter in cream,
    As water in river-beds, and as fire in the friction-sticks,
    So is the Soul (Atman) apprehend in one's own soul,
    If one looks for Him with true austerity (tapas).

¹⁷

The seer is absolutely convinced of the presence of God in the world though He cannot be seen. Oil is present in sesame seeds, but we cannot see the oil. Butter is present in cream, but we cannot see it, though we are sure it is there. Water is present in dry river-beds, for if we dig a little we see water. Fire is present in friction-sticks. This author is quite sure that God is in the world in the same way though His presence is not manifest at first sight. If He is hidden how may we see Him? By making the necessary effort, this writer seems to answer. To bring out the oil which is present in the sesame seeds what a lot of trouble is necessary. In every Indian town one sees oil mills worked slowly and patiently for hours together by a pair of bulls walking around the mill and doing the grinding. It is quite likely that this primitive oil mill was already in operation in the days of this author who must have been struck with the toil and difficulty of releasing the oi already present in the seeds. The process of churning the butter from cream is also difficult. The river-bed seems dry and barren but when an effort is made and a hole is dug water comes bubbling up. The friction-sticks have to be rubbed together hard until fire is produced. The vision of God then is a difficult process. These illustrations which he piles up indicate how difficult the seer finds the path of meditation.

Already Yoga had developed a technique and this author follows it.

    Holding his body steady with the three (upper parts) erect,
    And causing the senses with the mind to enter into the heart,
    A wise man with the Brahma-boat should cross over
    All the fear-bringing streams.

    Having repressed his breathings here in the body, and having his movements checked,
    One should breathe through his nostrils with diminished breath
    Like that chariot yoked with vicious horses;
    His mind the wise man should restrain distractedly.

    In a clean level spot, free from pebbles, fire and gravel
    By the sound of waters and other propinquities
    Favourable to thought, not offensive to the eye,
    In a hidden retreat protected from the wind, one should practise Yoga.

    Fog, smoke, sun, fire, wind,
    Fire-flies, lightning, a crystal, a moon -
    These are the preliminary appearances,
    Which produce the manifestation of Brahma in Yoga.

    When the fivefold quality of Yoga has been produced,
    Arising from earth, water, are, air and space,
    No sickness, no old age, no death has he
    Who has obtained a body made out of t?e fire of Yoga.

    Lightness, healthiness, steadiness,
    Clearness of countenance, and pleasantness of voice,
    Sweetness of odour, and scanty excretions -
    These, they say, are the first stage in the progress of Yoga.

    Even as a mirror stained by dust
    Shines brilliantly when it has been cleaned,
    So the embodied one, on seeing the nature of the soul (Atman),
    becomes unitary, his end attained, from sorrow freed.

    When with the nature of the self, as with a lamp,
    A practise of Yoga beholds here the nature of Brahma
    Unborn, steadfast, from every nature free -
    By knowing God (Deva) one is released from all fetters.

¹⁸

He makes the most careful preparation. He subjects his body to a careful discipline, sitting with head, chest and neck kept erect. His breath is well under control. He restrains his senses with, as much a care as a man drives a chariot to which vicious horses are harnessed. He chooses a clean spot free from distractions, and is helped by the sound of water; the bubbling stream has always a pleasant effect on the reflective mind. As his meditation begins he sees various visions - fog, smoke, fire, wind, fireflies, lightning, crystal, moon. His visions probably did not follow each other in quick succession. If we read about the experiences of mystics we see that each vision with its distinct picture comes after days of thought and effort But through them all he persists with a longing to see God. He is not content with these superficial experiences. He is all the time yearning for the sight of God and waits patiently, for it. As the result of his steady, mental and moral discipline his body itself attains purity and vigour. But, what satisfies him ultimately is nothing, less than the vision of God. He realises the real nature of Brahma, the unborn, the steadfast, from other nature free and this leads him to the belief that he is released from all other fetters.

The object of his devotion is Rudra. Rudra is the most terrible god of the Hindu pantheon. Why did this author worship Rudia? Dr. Bhandarkar suggests that it was because he was the only supreme god on the horizon at the time. But probably, there was something in the temperament of the author which responded to the idea of Rudra. There seems to have been an element of sternness, and severity in the author. He does not take life softly. There is nothing in this Upanishad of that joy or Ananda, which we see in, the other Upanishads. He considers the religious quest an uphill task. In the other Upanishads we find a great emphasis on Ananda. The life of the seer is full of joy and radiance; but here there is no such emphasis.

Among the phenomena of nature there are some which are dreadful and destructive the storms which work immense havoc, the thunderbolt which kills men and beasts mercilessly and the epidemics that sweep away hundreds. These dreadful phenomena were attributed by the Vedic poets to the wrath of the god Rudir. He however, can be pleased and satisfied by prayers and offerings. Then he becomes kindly and benignant. The worship of this god and the continual meditation upon the qualities which are associated with him must have shown the author of the Upanishad still further the difficulty of the religious quest. He prays to this god continually for love and goodness but at the same time he realises the awful aspect of his being.

New light is suddenly shed on his pathway. By one of these flashes of revelation mysterious but very real which often occur in religion, he realises that the best way to worship god is not by austerity but by Bhakti.

    To one who has the highest devotion (bhakti) for God,
    And for his spiritual teacher (guru) even as for God,
    To him these matters which have been declared
    Become manifest (if he is) a great soul (Mahatma),
    Yea, become manifest (if he is) a great soul.

¹⁹

This is the briefest glimpse of a great truth at the end of a long and difficult journey. The sky is still dark, but one glorious star has arisen. There would soon come a time when the firmament will be studded with many constellations but at the moment there is only a single, though exceedingly bright and clear, speck of light.

The author has travelled a long way from the nature worship of the Vedic poets who personified the phenomena around them and adored and followed “the gods whom they” so created. He has travelled a long way from the priestly ceremonialism and sacrificial formalism of the Brahmanas though even he was still a little under their control.²⁰ He has himself personally undertaken to walk along the path of knowledge and has realised its many difficulties. Suddenly it flashes upon him that what sacrifices, austere ties, meditation and Yoga could not do, Bhakti could do. What exactly did this author mean by Bhakti. We have only one reference in his treatise, but it looks as if he has coined a new word for expressing the attitude of devotion and surrender to God, the necessity for which he has reached after such a long and toilsome experience.

Indian Art

(We have previously included an unpublished fragment from the writings of the late Dr. J.N. Farquhar. Now, by kind permission of Rev. J.V. and Mrs. Dibben, we are able to print further extracts. In the next issue will appear an article entitled ‘The Passion for Release’. Here we include a fragment on Indian Art.)

The resident in India today, if fortunately placed, may be able to see the specimens of the best Indian art without serious travel, for there are several museums where most interesting collections are on view. If one is far from these art centres then there is usually a certain amount of pleasing architecture and sculpture within easy range. The local Hindu temple is almost, always worth study, even if small and simple. If the interior is inaccessible, the exterior is usually worth study. The orientation varies according to sect, and is thus scarcely worth observing. But the shape and symmetry of the building and of the tower are usually well worthy of notice. If these are commonplace, the sculpture, which in many cases covers the whole edifice, will be a joy. The palaces of princes are often very beautiful, whether centuries old or recently built, and in the districts where the great events of Indian history have taken place there are occasional towers of victory well worthy of notice.

From the court life of the Mogul emperors in the sixteenth seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, there sprang, a notable school of Indian painting. It was of purely Indian origin, but, naturally gathered many, fresh features in the course of its history. Most of the work produced consists of small pictures, portraits of notable people, favourite and personal friends of the emperors and their families, court scenes, hunting scenes, field games or visits to notable ascetics. In both technique and personal feeling many of these Muslim paintings stand high.

Of still greater interest is the indigenous painting of Rajputana, which, during the last three centuries, has produced many pictures showing real artistic power and a great deal of feeling. These are lineal descendants of the painting of ancient India and still embody the spirit of the people. Two schools are distinguishable, the Jaipur school (Rajputana) and the Kangra school (the Punjab). There is hope that India may yet produce greater art than her sons created in the early centuries,

The new Art School in Calcutta, which has behind it several, of the greatest modern Indians, aims at building on Indian foundations, and producing genuine Indian art, but also seeks to utilise all the artistic and scientific experience of Europe. Fine results have been already achieved, and greater things will yet arise.

The COINS of ancient India reflect, in miniature, the history of Indian art, and make a fascinating and rewarding study. Greek influence is strong in the earliest period. The coins of the Gupta monarchs are the most splendid of all, yet, the Muhammadan types also are full of charm, partly because they are so different from all other issues.

MUSIC has played a great part in Indian life since the days of the Rigveda and even earlier; and today there is a very, living interest in the subject among the educated. But Indian music differs in several respects from the music of the West; so that the European ear does not usually appreciate it very deeply, when it is first heard.

The chief distinction between Indian and Western music is that, while Western music rests largely on harmony, Indian music lives almost entirely on melody. Again, in Indian music microtones are much used, which have no place in Western music. Thirdly, in the Western arts tone and timbre are counted as of great importance, while, in the Indian art, all the stress is laid on accuracy of melodic form, On being told that a certain singer had not got a good voice, an Indian replied, “That is nothing. The great thing is for him to sing correctly and skilfully. The tone does not matter.” But nowadays, Indians are beginning to lay more and more emphasis on perfection of tone.

The song has held first place in Indian music. This is probably due to the nature of the language spoken by the people. “The combination of resonant vowels and a metrical language has led to the development of vocal rather than instrumental music”.²¹

The voice is accompanied by drums or the tambura. The latter is a lute-like instrument. In singing the glissando is much used, and great attention is paid to rhythm. But India has also solo instruments, the national instrument being the vina. It also is a lute-like instrument, but, unlike the tambura, it has frets. It is the most elaborate and the oldest of Indian instruments, yet it is not nearly as elaborate as the piano, since the hands play directly on the strings.

Drumming is also considered an art. The saying goes that it takes a life-time to make a good drummer. Probably, for this reason, excellent drumming is heard all over India. In modern India the greatest artists are prepared to improvise and are expert at it.

We cannot stress too deeply the connection between music and religion in India, Dr. Rabindranath Tagore goes so far as to say, “Indian music concerns itself with human experience as interpreted by religion”.

Certainly, music has played a great part in Indian religious life, since the days of the Rigveda, when one of the chief elements of worship was the chanting of hymns of praise by the Brahmans of the Samaneda. When the Hindu people, about 400 B.C. adopted Temple-and-image worship, music, both vocal and instrumental passed into the services of the temple, and there it has continued to flourish ever since. In popular religion, from the earliest times until today, the people have gathered in groups large or small, when they have had a musician to lead them on his instrument and have sung hymns far into the night.

But, while music has had its chief stronghold in religion we must remember that it has also from the beginning held a great place in the drama. To this day a good deal of the cultivation of music is connected with the theatres.

A Christian Poet

(Life of Poet H.A. Krishna Pillai)

By Honorable Sir David Devadoss.

Printed at the Madras Law Journal Press; copies; obtainable from N.M.S. Press, Royapettah, Madras; Diocesan Book Depot, Palamcottah; Author, Sylvan Lodge, The Luz, Mylapore, Madras.

This little book will appeal to all readers of the Pilgrim. It is written at the request of our former editor, Dr. A.J. Appasamy, who contributes a foreword and whose father, Dewan Bahadur A.S. Appasamy, was a convert of Krishna Pillai’s. Moreover, it is written by the poet’s nephew, the son of Krishna Pillai’s younger, brother, Muthiah Pillai. This brother was, converted to Christianity a short time before, the poet, and the story of his conversion and that of his two friends provides the most moving passages of the book. It is interesting to note the various influences which led these three youths to their decision. In the background was the personal influence of a blind Anglo-Indian, Cruikshanks, headmaster of a school in Palamcottah. In the hearts of the youths was a disgust at the obscene stories of gods and, goddesses found in the Puranas. Along with that it is interesting to note that Paley’s Evidences’ played a decisive part. It was amidst the greatest commotion of joy on the part of the Christian community and anger on that of the Hindu community that these three received baptism. One of the three Dhanakoti Raju, had a great influence on Krishna Pillai. It was in the following year (1858) that the latter finally accepted Christ. Both he and Muthiah Pillai were accomplished Tamil scholars who had worked as munshis. After his conversion Krishna Pillai taught first at the S.P.G School at Sawyerpuram and later at the C.M.S. College at Palamcottah, and in both places had a great influence on his pupils and led several to Christ. The story early in the book of young Muthiah Pillai’s, spiritual quest at Cruikshank’s school is balanced in the closing pages with that of a youth, Sudalaiadumperumal, to whom Krishna Pillai gives the name Appasamy. (He was Dewan Bahadur A.S. Appasamy).

Within the compass of this little book a number of topics are introduced which are of considerable importance for the Christian community everywhere in India, Christians and business for example. When Muthiah Pillai set up in retail business he was asked how a Christian could engage in trade where an ability to tell lies was an essential qualification. He replied by introducing a fixed price. It is to the author’s credit that he does not gloss over the quarrels in the Christian community, particularly on money matters. He is thereby the better able to show the reconciling influence of life in Christ. We note how Muthiah Pillai and his two friends stood out against having their Kudimis (topknots) removed at the time of their Baptism.

The historical details of Christian missions in Tirunelveli are very interesting. On the all important question of Krishna Pillai’s poetry the present writer can say nothing. The book is a biography but a few specimen stanzas from the poet’s magnum opus, Rakshanya Yatrikum, (a poem based on The Pilgrim’s Progress) are included at the end of the book. On this subject we will simply say that especially from the point of view of worship, the Church in India has few greater needs today than for poets and hymn-writers. But they cannot be made to order, the wind bloweth where it listeth. Those areas which have had their poets may thank God.

Edited and published by Rev. J.S. Moon; Bankura

Printed by The Oriental Art Press, 1 Newul Rishere Road (Hazratgani), Lucknow