The Pilgrim

The Quarterly Bulletin of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism

Editor: P. Chenchiah

To Our Readers

The purge of membership list is completed. The result is we start with a number about which we cannot be enthusiastic. When we remember our target is 500, we are not even halfway up. Unless each member secures another, the goal will be no nearer. I have always regarded the ‘PILGRIM’ as a co-operative effort. We need and appeal to the co-operation of our readers. If you think of a probable member, drop me a card I will send him a copy. ‘The Pilgrim’ should be self-supporting and help the Society. This depends on a wide extension of the membership roll. Will you help?

Our Contributors

The article on Advaita is from the pen of Mr. V.S. Narasimhacharlu, Advocate who has contributed articles on Madwaism and Incarnation according to Madhwa. The Theological Survey of Hindu Religious Literature 1949, ‘Our Religious Magazines and Reviews’ are by the Editor. ‘What our readers say’ is new feature.

We wish to bring to the attention of our readers a few Christian publications which may be reviewed in the Pilgrim if sent for review.

1. ‘How to present Christ to a Hindu’ a pamphlet price Annas 4, available North India Christian Bible and Tract Society-18, Clive St., Allahabad. We hope to publish extracts from this book in a future issue.

2. The Claim, Content and Context of Christian Evangelism in India.’ Series - No. 2 ‘Prof. Radhakrishnan and a Parliament of Religions by Dr. D.G. Moses.’ Studies undertaken in India in conjunction with study departments of the World Council of Churches and of the International Missionary Council - Rs. 12 each, C.L.S. Madras.

3. Tamil and Sanskrit equivalents for Theological Terms - Annas 4, C.L.S. Madras.

4. Activities of the Department of Organised Research - Leonard Theological College by Dr. Henry H. Presler, Director, Jabalpur.

Editorial Notes

1. Independence and India

Three years may be too short to enter into the promised land which independence pointed to but not too short to know if any land like the promised one is even visible from Pisgah heights. Our anticipations of new India may have been vague and negative and our present discontent is also vague and negative. We have been driven in politics as once we were driven in religion to label our feelings with the prefix ‘A’ as in Ahimsa, (non-violence), Akama (non fulfilment), to mask our positive frustrations. We celebrate the Independence Day with conventional joy and smiles but for some reason or other feel that the spontaneous ananda is totally wanting. The celebrations, as in British India, are official and official-led consisting of the same parades and endless talks with less and less memory of Mahatma. It is indeed a chastened and much subdued and not a little disillusioned ‘free India’ that celebrated its independence on the 15th of August 1950.

For the party in power this lack of enthusiasm in the people is a more dangerous portent than even disturbances of peace and order, open criticisms, party disintegrations.

Why have the heroes failed? The answer is there for those who have eyes to read. Independence without content is a mockery and this mockery is agonising the souls in free India. In politics the minimum is the maximum. Certain things are the least and the most which freedom demands. Food, clothing, employment, reading, freedom are the content of true independence. To give these to all the citizens is alike the base and top of democracy. If you fail here, you fail everywhere. Hungry man cannot wait for long-time schemes nor the naked for the production of clothes in the mills of the future. Unemployment is here and now and all promised feasts in the future are Barmecide dinners! Reckoning on this basis, independence has made the position of the man in the street worse and not better.

While we are celebrating independence, we are troubled with the food situation, which stares at us in all its starkness, in spite of the jugglery of words with which Sri Munshi treats us. There are people facing starvation if not death. The naked are increasing. There may be a thousand excuses for scarcity of clothing, but the scarcity is there and no power of eloquence can charm it away. Civil liberties union wedded to law and order has been wailing the total abrogation in fact, of the fundamental rights which exist only in the statute book. As for unemployment, the situation is not perceived because it is beneath the surface. Every household has youngsters who are languishing for want of employment. The employment bureaus are official, bureaucratic where they are not corrupt and exotic as well. Communism is fed by hunger and unemployment. The inevitable will happen if the party in power behaves like the ostrich. The Government itself awoke suddenly to the danger of rocketing prices and is frantically passing Acts and taking powers. But experience tells us that statute book has never avoided a danger if the executive is incompetent, inefficient and corrupt. It is becoming impossible to live in the midst of soaring prices. Petrol, food, clothing, have become more costly in peace time than in wartime. Unemployment is spreading alarmingly. That is the paradox of the situation and the paradox can only occur in a wicked and selfish generation.

Mr. V.V. Srinivasa Iyengar - one time High Court Judge and a Lawyer of the Madras Bar - an Orthodox Vaishnavite, not given to impulsive speech or hasty Judgement made a statement to the press - which expresses the unexpressed thoughts of many in India.

“I am voicing the hundreds of millions constituting the citizenship of the Indian nation when I say that there is not perhaps one in a million to express himself satisfied, if not with the regime, at least with regard to the results of the regime. I am not referring to the prevalence of famine conditions, to the shooting prices of commodities, to the disquieting foreign relations even to communist agitation. These may be the result as I trust they are, of passing conditions and inevitable causes but what I am for the most grieved and aggrieved for, is the realisation by me of the utter demoralisation of the people as a whole and every individual citizen.”

Mr. Sreenivasa Iyengar points out how every law produces only law-evaders and law-circumventors. He characterises the situation as “Wholesale deterioration of the morale of manhood and lack of semblance to ideals of truth and Dharma propounded by the late lamented Father of the nation in the ideal of his Rama Rajya.”

This moral degeneration deserves to be stressed as the root of all evils. The diagnosis is the condemnation of all conventional religions, churches and institutions. Religion seems to be helpless to face the situation all over the world. Worse, everywhere Religion has aligned itself with the state in its foreign policies and ceased to be a corrective moral force. The tragedy of today is the utter abdication of Religion of its ethical and constructive function and its failure as a shaping power.

May we appeal to all religions while yet there is time, to rally together and courageously stand by the truth and endeavour to form the national backbone by laying down in precept and practice the National Dharma - that alone can save nations to day

2. Sadhus, Samadhi, Science

In understanding Hinduism we have to keep an eye on how certain ancient practices survive into modern times and influence the Hindu for good or otherwise. The study, as a part of religious psychology is instructive. The mysterious and the miraculous have perennial appeal to the religious mind for the simple reason they challenge the despotism of law and the normal. The Sadhu who allows himself to be buried for hours and days or the professional who eats everything - (Sarva bakshi) including serpents and hydrochloric acid, belongs to the category of magicians of the Rope and Mango trick fame. In their appeal we discern nothing spiritual. It is otherwise with samadhi. It is difficult to define this term adequately in English. In the technique of Yoga, Samadhi means an ecstatic condition which is the goal of all yoga effort. A person in Samadhi is said to be one with God. He is withdrawn from the world to be with God or to become one with God. A religious man in samadhi attracted great attention in the past. The Rishis of the past received their revelations, inspirations in samadhi condition. All the great scriptures especially Ramayana and Mahabharata are attributed to the same-source. A person in Samadhi continues to attract attention even today - curiosity being the larger element in popular attitude than reverence. A recent incident in Madras which has received the attention of daily press illustrates the point. A sorter in the Telegraph and Postal department developed tendencies for Samadhi and gathered a few disciples round him and was in samadhi at a Kali temple in Kodambakkam near Madras. When I returned from my summer holidays he was in the news as he gave out he will enter samadhi, practically meaning he will breathe his last, at about twelve o’clock on a certain day. Crowds numbering hundreds and slowly mounting to a thousand gathered to witness the end of the man in samadhi. As it looked, the crowd in their anxiety to get at him might trample him, the police intervened and established a cordon round him. At the appointed time he indicated that he did not propose to die as they wanted him to do. The crowds disappointed, called him a fraud. Evidently he was in a condition of suspended animation for the police doctor found that there was some warmth near the heart. But his disciples were rather anxious to bury him over-looking the slight circumstance that he was not yet dead. The moment it became clear that he had no intention of entering samadhi, everybody dropped him - the press, the disciples and the crowds. Well might sadhus in samadhi wish to be spared from devotees and admirers whose only interest in them is to see them dead and buried. This is the second instance we have heard of a sadhu announcing he would enter samadhi and failing to do so. Evidently it has become a habit with them to shy from death at the last moment. However miserable the world may be according to all religions, these enlightened souls prefer to cling to this vale of sorrows rather than becoming one with reality or reaching heaven.0

The first thing we notice is the attraction for samadhi which has gathered round it a spiritual halo. Vijnaneshwar, if the film story is historical, ended his life in a condition of samadhi. Ramana Maharishi was in samadhi at the beginning of his life in Tiruvannamalai but evidently not at the end of his life. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa used to pass into samadhi every few minutes and come back into jagratha condition. We do not hear about it in connection with Sri Aurobindo or Sri C.V.V. In all descriptions, the Hindu and Buddhistic - (i.e.) the orthodox and heterodox alike it is described as a blissful state of ananda.

The second remark we make is the gradual deterioration of the word. In Patanjali - the classical writer on Yoga - samadhi is the last term of the trio - Dnyana, Dharuna, Samadhi and all the three receives the generic name samyama. With Patanjali, it is an instrument of extra-sensory knowledge - knowledge of things beyond human faculties - hypnotic or telepathic condition of practical utility. Next the word has suffered a degradation and is used for a condition of suspended animation or hibernation popular in puranas. Lastly it has become equated to a sort of predetermined suicide or a method of ending life. Grave is called samadhi of a man. Why the word has suffered this degeneration has to be investigated.

For all the spiritual halo that has been thrown round it, the samadhi condition resembles hibernation. The pulse is low and breathing is minimum. In this condition a sort of life could be maintained for weeks even in a coffin closed and sealed. The moral value of samadhi or its utility as conceived by Patanjali has never received unbiased scientific investigation in India. Whether samadhi can help us to see the life of stars or inner life of trees as Patanjali maintains, has never been tested and proved. In its physical manifestations, samadhi seems to be human hibernation - probably attended with physical purification and the cleansing of the poisons in the body.

What of its spiritual value? The lack of scientific and psychological interest prevents true knowledge. One thing we may say, the experience is capable of different valuations. The Buddhist says that in samadhi we reach the negative condition of sunya - the Hindu maintains that one becomes identified with God. It cannot be both.

In the absence of contemporary knowledge we have to fall back on experiences recorded in the past. One thing emerges from a study of the experiences of samadhi. It is not painful but pleasant. Samadhi if we use plain language is a voluntary, pleasant means of dissolving life. We may call it suicide without the moral evil associated with it. All descriptions of samadhi agree on this central fact of ananda.

An instructive truth, contradictory of the prevailing views emerges. Death is not always painful. Death from disease, death from accidents, death from old age is painful. But death through ripeness, like the fall of a ripe fruit from the tree seems to be natural and even pleasant. The association of pain with death is due to our want of knowledge. Samadhi death is a technique of pleasant death. Death is not the terrible visaged savage of life. It can be a pleasant full stop. One should train oneself to die naturally. But Birth is always painful - creation is indicated in Vedas as - a sacrifice. Christianity starts a life process and associates itself with pain - pain of birth and life. Hinduism concerns itself with the dissolution or abrogation of life which it correctly associates as Buddha did with pain. Hinduism celebrates the end of life, Christianity - its birth. The contrast exists and what we make of this contrast is a different story and depends on whether your quest is for everlasting life or eternal rest or release. All religions including Christianity speak of death as release and life as bondage. Did Jesus reverse this experience and set a new goal for humanity with the new mankind?

3. A Community at the Auction Table

Dr. Ambedkar in the midst of his preoccupations with the passing of the ‘Constitution’ and battles with orthodoxy in connection with the Hindu Code, found time to attend the World-Buddhist conference and gave the schedule classes the advice that in order to better their social status they had better adopt a religion which gives them freedom and indicated that the religion suitable may be Buddhism. He wanted to satisfy himself that Buddhism is the same enlightened religion. Sri Buddha gave to the world and has not succumbed to superstition. About twenty years ago he gave the same advice that created a sensation in orthodox Hindu circles who evinced a love for the Panchama which was never shown in action in daily life. Then was also seen the unedifying scene of religious leaders bidding for the Panchama community offering advantages they could not guarantee in practice. The Christians, Muslim, and the Sikh were the bidders. Nothing came out of it. The renewed advice of Dr. Ambedkar has brought forth a crop of protests some reasonable and some otherwise - but on the whole moderate and chastened reactions showing, that the lessons of history were not altogether lost on the enlightened in Hinduism.

Although mass conversions of communities, tribes and nations - occasionally witnessed in the History of missionary religions are apt to be social changes under the garb of nominal religious changes. History has never witnessed the spectacle of a community which forms one fifth of Indian population offer itself at an auction table.

Two things should be kept in mind in this connection:

1. A community attached to a religion which has never taken them within its social orbit and which for social and economic reasons treated them as serfs, has every right to migrate into any society which offers them an asylum with or without adopting a new religion for that purpose.

2. In spite of the Herculean efforts of Mahatmaji and his followers to change the traditional attitude the panchama and the genuine efforts in the political field to improve the economic and social conditions, the orthodox society has not shown that resilience which enables Hindu social polity to absorb and assimilate the panchama. The true generous impulse towards panchama comes from the humanitarian and secular quarters rather than orthodox and religious sources and a good deal of the professions of love and regard to them, masquerades the political motive of retaining them for the power numbers bring in a modern democratic state.

While therefore we concede the right of a community as well as an individual to change their religion and social context if by so doing they secure economic and social freedom and equality, we doubt whether in modern conditions it is necessary to change one’s faith for the purpose. Religion while it ought to minister to social and economic well-being, is above material ends and one should adopt a religion which one feels is suited to one’s soul’s needs or well-being.

In the modern world the worker -the proletariat is marching straight to the throne. Class and Caste are doomed and in the revolution of time, power is coming to the Panchama. He may become as the worker, the ruler and dictator the shaping force in society and economics. He has only to prepare himself for the glory that awaits. He need not migrate and change. The crown is travelling towards his head. He needs only patience. Any day the Panchama if only he realises his power and importance, can dictate his own terms to society and society whether caste or class dare not reject them. Of all times, the modern times are most propitious for the Panchama and there is no need for panic.

Secondly Buddhism in the continent of India has not much of a society and the Parchama is in search of a social asylum. Islam, Sikhism and to some extent Christians have societies. How far they can give to the Panchama what he needs it is for him to decide.

Social love, economic equity, and dignity which the Panchamas seek can be got, in the modern conditions of life on their own strength. We would rather prefer religion being elevated above politics and policies and accepted, appropriated, adopted for the higher values it offers. A Panchama is free to remain, a Hindu or become a Christian, Muslim, Sikh or Buddhist. But he may or ought to do this for the highest weal of his soul In modern conditions he need not do this for economic and political reasons. Religion has ceased to be the portal of economic and political worlds. Here in India we need to preach to the Panchama the doctrine of inner strength and capacity and throw him on God rather than on social and economic powers, which are Gods of the marketplace.

Reviews

Stotaratna or the Hymn Jewel of Sri Yamunacharyaanslated

Translated with introduction and footnotes by Adidevananda Sri Ramakrishna Mutt, Madras, pp. 74 Price As. 12.

Universal Prayers by Swami Yatiswarananda

Ramaishna Mutt, Introduction pp. 45, text pp. 216, Price Rs. 1-12-0.

Hardly had the printer’s ink dried on our note on ‘Common Prayers’ in our March issue calling upon leaders of different religions to collect prayers from each religion fit for interreligious worship, the Ramakrishna Publishing House came out with two valuable contributions to the subject. The ‘Stotramala of Yamunacharya’ reveals a Vaishnavite Bhakta’s soul in moments of worship and portrays the outpourings of a devotee’s heart. Those of us who have been deriving our knowledge of each other’s religion from theological text-books and doctrinal systems will find a new world of common aspirations open here. The Christian will find the adoration, the praise and thanksgiving, the sense and confession of sin, the need of salvation, the joy of communion with God - everything associated with high worship by the Church. The great value of this book lies in the revelation that the Bhaktas in all religion have a common vocabulary of emotions and thoughts when they turn Godwards. On this Rock of common vocabulary we have to build the edifice of common effort and endeavour. Those who address God in similar words are spiritual brethren indeed. We give three extracts to show the acute sense of sin, the longing for fellowship of God, the laying hold on the grace of God.

1. “There is not a single despicable deed in the world which had not been committed by me thousands of times. O Mukunda. When these deeds are fructifying I, cry out helplessly before thee.” (23).

2. “When shall I see with my eyes the Lotus feet of thine, my dearest treasure which scornfully strode over the world high and low; and which are waiting eagerly the moment for destroying the afflictions of those who submit themselves to thee.” (30).

3. “O Hari, pray make me thine own out of sheer grace - who am a vessel of a thousand iniquities, who has fallen into the depths of the terrible ocean of worldly existence and who being restless, has sought refuge at Thy feet.” (48).

‘Universal prayers’ culled from Rig Veda to Puranas constitutes one running refrain to the Bhajanas of Bhaktas, illustrating all the moods and emotions of Stotra Ratna. Somewhere at the beginning of Upanishadic age there was a period of prayers, a few of which have been attached to the fly-leaves of various Upanishads. With these the student of religions has become acquainted particularly the one from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad “from the unreal lead me to the real, from darkness lead me to the light, from death lead me to immortality.” What most students do not know is that Rig Veda and Puranas contain many more of such Catholic prayers. The one from Rig Veda, 191 3.4 beginning with “common be your prayer, common be your lead”, etc., is another, cosmopolitan prayer for common worship. Some prayers breathe Universal benevolence.

    May the wicked become virtuous. May the virtuous
    attain tranquillity. - May the tranquil be free from bonds.
    May the free make others free.

— p. 241, prayer 312.

    May all be happy, May all be free from disease. May
    all realise what is good; May none be subject to misery.

— Prayer 311.

    O Lord of the universe I want neither wealth nor
    intellectual attainments. Do thou grant that I may be
    blessed in every birth with selfless devotion to thee.

— Prayer 266.

The introduction is an essay on interreligious prayer life - well worth close study. Now that Hinduism has met the challenge, we hope that the Christian, Muslim and the Sikh will bring his offerings to the altar. A collection of great Christian prayers, starting with Lord’s prayer will be a timely contribution to interreligious worship. We commend the suggestion to the C.L.S. Madras.

Theology and Religion

Their mutual relation and reaction by L. Sweetenham - the Deodars, Mussoorie, U.P. India - can be had from the author or C.M.S. Press, Sikandra, Agra.

This pamphlet is a sign of the times - of the growing nervousness on the part of Religion and Theology at their separation. The author rightly pleads that religion and theology - one in essence should not follow their unrelated courses without reference to each other as they have done much to their mutual impoverishment but should make determined efforts to integrate each other into a healthy whole. The gains to theology, as the author points out will be an accession of life-blood while to religion theology can bring an enlightenment without which it cannot walk without stumbling in these days. The Christian needs a reason for his faith, when the faith is challenged as in India not only by the world of politics and science but by other religions. Christianity hopes to convert others to its way of life and to do this, in the context of modern life, it has to gain them to its way of thinking. We may add to the reasons given by the writer, the practical necessity of the Indian situation for closer alliance between religion and theology. Theology can help Religion in its presentation of Christ to others. Of the gains to theology from constant touch with practical religion more may be said and in stronger language than the author has done. The theologian with his mind saturated with thought forms of the past is becoming more, more an anachronism - a seventeenth century being living in the twentieth century bustle and traffic - not only missing his bus but also his way. More than the theologian, the theology has become anaemic, incapable of striking into new adventures, trying to save itself from the constant prodding with sharp weapons from science and state. If theology desires to get acclimatised to modern conditions, it has to draw closer to modern man and his religion. If religion is life, theology must strike roots into religion and popular religion at that, to draw its living energies. To the Indian Christian, the situation is less tolerable than to the western and his task is not merely to bring together a traditional Christian religion and a traditional Christian theology but to step out of both of them and try to grasp Christ with all his heart (religion), and with all his mind (theology).

The author has some valuable suggestions for bringing about the desired reapproachment between Christian theology and Christian religion. The obstacle is not so much the conservative distrust of intellect surviving even in the pastor who has been trained in the theological institutes but in the disparity of intellectual levels between the new preacher theologically trained, and the old congregation embedded in the concrete moulds of tradition and suspicious of all freedom of movement. We may add two suggestions to those advanced in the booklet - First recognising, we are happy to see, as the author has done, that any reapproachment demands the courage of reconsidering both religion and theological foundations of Christianity; we have to accustom the church congregations to a more courageous and revolutionary mode of thought. It may not be too much to hope that the Indian Christian theological conference, will lead the way in this matter. Secondly, theology must develop a new branch of experimental religion consisting of Christian Yoga for the individual Christian and Christian Sociology for the Society. The Christians need a Christian synthetic view of life relating to all aspects of life-political, economics, science. Theology should aspire to be an interpretation of total life from the standpoint of Christ. In one word a phrase incidentally used by the author, experimental religion offers a new technique of approach for the integration of religion and theology. This booklet is a timely addition to the all-too-meagre stream of literature on a vital subject. We hope our pastors who are now mostly trained in theological colleges and the Indian theological conference will note the plea of the author, as it falls within their province to restore theology to its proper place in Indian Christianity.

The Gospel According to St. John

Siddha Yohana Anusare Mangala - Samachara with commentary - Bangiya Kathalika Sahityo Samithi, 9/3, Middleton Row - Calcutta 16 by Fr. Pierre Fallon S.J.

We are seriously handicapped in Reviewing this translation of St. John’s Gospel in Bengali as we do not know Bengali though we are not without hope of getting it read to us for a more elaborate review.

The translation of Christian Scriptures into Indian languages has been deservedly a reproach for the lack of literary merit and grace. When we realise the serious handicaps under which the translations had to be effected we cannot but admire the courage and labours of the translators. The Indian Christian community did not possess enough Indian Christians well versed in the literature of the religions they renounced. Under such circumstances the Bible in the Indian languages which we have is perhaps the best that could be had at the time. Unfortunately the language of Scriptures even when palpably crude and inept becomes sacrosanct, and we have witnessed senseless opposition to every effort to improve the original translations. At a meeting in Madras for drawing up equivalents in Tamil and Sanskrit for theological terms it was understood that Bible Tamil should be left out of consideration, lest an improvement of language should bring the ignorant wrath of the orthodox.

The hope then lies in individual and private translations of the Gospels - translations which have literary merit, grace that will appeal to an Indian reader, accustomed to the beauties and cadences of his own language. In Telugu such an attempt was made by my friend the late Mantripragada Rajah Bhujanga Row. If the translation was in prose it would have met the need of the Christians far better.

We therefore welcome Father Fallon’s translation of St. John’s Gospel. The father has obtained his M.A., degree in Bengali from the Calcutta University and those who have gone through his book of Bengali terms for phrases in use in Church Government and worship know how well he is qualified for the task. The graceful rendering of Gospel according to St. John as ‘Siddha Yohana Anusare Mangala Samachara’ on the well known principle of testing the food by a single grain - gives a true promise of the style of the translation adopted. By the by I find Hindi writers of orthodox type in ‘Kalyanakalpataru’ use Sant for Saint (i.e.) adopt the principle that where a term is peculiar and untranslatable, use it with minimal modifications.

Now that St. John’s Gospel which has a great appeal to the Indian mind is given in a language that attunes the nuances of St. John’s teaching of Jesus to the sensitive ear of the Bengali, we hope the artificial obstacles in the way of its study by Bengalis will no longer exist. The prejudices that divide religion from religion are dying out, and good translations have greater chances of being read by followers of other religions, thus drawing religions together in a common appreciation of their Scriptures.

Sacred Order No. 1

Compiled and published by a missionary on behalf of Sacred University, Madras - Evidently not for sale.

This pamphlet contains lectures delivered by representatives of different religions at the opening conference of the institution styled the Sacred University. Hinduism was represented by Ritajananda of Sri Ramakrishna Mutt and Narahari Doss of Goudiya Mutt; Buddhism by Bikku Somananda of Mahabodhi Society of Ceylon - Madras Branch, Jainism by Prof. S.A. Jain, M.A., of Pachayappa’s College, Madras; Islam by Prof. Bhukhari and Christianity by Mr. A.N. Sudarsanam, Editor of ‘The Guardian’. Each address is good and informing. The discourse on Buddhism is ‘Simple, clear, and matter of fact’ and Mr. Bukhari as usually the case, is Catholic, persuasive and broadhearted. Ramakrishna mission gave mellowed wisdom and Goudiya Mutt passionate longing. Yet we looked in vain for a common thread running through them. Hindu representative spoke of peace - Muslim representative of democracy. The Jain told the audience how rational and modern his faith is, and the Buddhist pointed out how little his faith leans on Metaphysical hypothesis. If we may venture to make a suggestion these meetings will be of greater practical value if each religion tackles some national problem and tells us how they hope to solve it. We suggest next time National Dharma may be taken as the theme for different religions to speak upon. The Christian at such meetings is at a loss what to say. The Editor of the Guardian gave a brief liberal - orthodox view of the religion of Jesus which in itself good did not ‘catch on’ to what others had to say. Religions lined up, and they found it hard to shake hands, much as they liked to do.

Journal of Oriental Research

We welcome into our exchange the Journal of Oriental research of Madras founded by Mr. Prof. S. Kuppusami Sastri, M.A. The current part is part of Volume XVII and the Journal has been well-spoken of by Western and Eastern Orientalists. The name of Mahamahopadyaya the founder is a guarantee of sound scholarship and true research. Dr. V. Raghavan - mentioned as the correspondent which we take means practically, the Editor comes in the succession of great Sanskrit Scholars, and we may be sure the high standards of the founder will be maintained. The Governing body of the Institution contains all the Sanskrit lovers of the city and this again shows that the magazine can draw on rich resources as well as on the resources of the rich.

The range of subjects dealt in part 3 are wide and varied. To the Editor an Andhra - the article on Western Chalukyas and Chola conflict in Vengi by Sri Venkaramiah is instructive. In this connection we may state that Kavi M. Ramakrishniah has just brought out Nannechodadeva’s Kumarasambavam, one of the Phanchakavyas in Telugu which keeps the memory of the Choda King green forever in Telugu literature. “Svadesa and Paradesa Vit” is the only article with a religious flavour. This lecture by Narayana Iyer, I.C.S., delivered as the Ramayana endowment lectures founded in honour of Hon. V. Srinivasa Sastri at the Valmiki Celebration day, expounds the ideal quality of Sri Rama, of seeing one’s own defects. A description of the 15th All India Oriental Conference is given. The pride of the place goes to the article on Betel leaves and chewing, which shows how much research in Asia has elucidated this ubiquitous and hygienically strafed custom that discolours all public places. South-India claims betel chewing as a Dravida institution and Research supports the claim.

Caritas

St. Joseph, apostolic Seminary Magazine - Mangalpuzha - Alwaye, December 1949.

We thank Father Zachariahs for sending a copy of Caritas. We should like to be in touch with Protestant as well as Catholic Seminaries - so that we may be in a position to feel the pulse of Christianity current in our days. Being an Indian Christian, we count ourselves neither a Roman Catholic nor a Protestant but a follower of Jesus to whom all Bhaktas of Jesus are brethren and dear brethren. We appreciate this act of the father to acquaint us with what Catholics are doing in their Seminaries. We count some friends among Catholic Scholars - Fr. Pierre Fallon, Father Zachariahs, Father Heras. We shall deem it our duty to pass over whatever is good in Catholic and Protestant Christianity to the Hindu and whatever is good and acceptable in Hinduism to the Christian. The issue of December contains the following articles on Hinduism:

1. The Hindu religious conception
2. Christ in Quran
3. Ophiolatry
4. Sublimities that do not clash - a study of similarities in Hinduism and Christianity
5. Himalayas and the Hindus.

Our ignorance about ‘Our Lady Fatima’ - ‘the pilgrim virgin’ - is somewhat dispelled - and we are less foggy about it, although we do not yet know how the name of the daughter of Mahamad comes into it - even after reading the article on Fatima. We hope the Protestant Seminaries will copy the example and send us their Magazines.

History of the Tamil Land

By Dr. Savariroyan Yesudassen, F.R.C.S. - Tirupatur Kristukula, Ashram, North Arcot - with an introduction by Thiru T.K. Chitambaranatha Mudaliar pp. 308, Price Rs. 2 - available from the author at the Ashram.

This is a new writing on the History of India and a welcome writing too. Free India had better start with a true and worthy conception of History, for the ancient conception has been the parent of a progeny of evils. History till recently had been both in the west and in the east a chronicle of wars and warriors, of conquerors and conquests - of false ambitions and brutal force. Nothing is so easy as to fill New India with imperialistic aims, provincial rivalries and Linguistic fanaticism and sectarian jealousies. All these had their root in the classic conception of History. Carlyle struck the note that History is a biography of Heroes. The Italian conception of History as the advance of the people and masses and the Marxian view as the growth of economic conditions are a few of the outstanding new and better conceptions. We may add to this the conception of History as the record of freedom guaranteed by law. The author works out some of the new concepts. For a full history of any land the approach has to be made from all these angles.

The prominence given to Geography, Literature, the great men of the Tamil land - mostly saints and philosophers, Arts, offers a new and more correct format of History, and we are glad that a book calculated to feed the sources of lofty and enlightened patriotism has issued from an ashram. If an ashram, is a way of looking at and evaluating life, it should have a characteristic conception of History and the book under review gives us such a conception. The chapter headings themselves indicate how wide and large has been the departure from the conventional theory of History, The first part deals with Tamil land, its boundaries, races, mountains and rivers, waterfalls and harbours. A chapter on ancient sources follows. The second part traces the History of Tamil literature giving prominence to books, that shaped the faith of the people. Reference to famous temples and their beauty is a new note in historical writing, and we hope its value will receive due attention from historians. The great-men of the Tamil-history forms the subject of the fourth chapter. The author works out the conception of History as the story of the great men of the race Tiruvalluvar, Kambar, Sankarachar, Alwars, Saivite reformers Appar, Sundarar, Tirugnanasambandar, Pattinattar, Manikkavachakar, Thayumanavar, Krishnapillai. This chapter gives the impression that the History of South India is the history of its saints. We wish however the heroes of secular life, of those who fought for liberty and freedom, for brother-hood in the Middle Ages had received some mention. While it may be true that history is not a chronicle of kings, it is equally true it is not exclusively the story of the saints. We notice the grandmother of the race, Avvayar is not conspicuously mentioned and the fiery reformers, sithars - also are omitted.

Dr. Jesudason has given a first sketch in this book, of the new worthy conception of history - not merely as the story of wars and conquests but also as the development of culture and arts. The hang-over from the old conception is however apparent in the fact that nearly half the book consists of the history of kings and kingdoms.

We hope in the next edition - for we think a new edition will soon be called for, the kingdoms and Kings will be restricted to one chapter and the space released may be devoted to a full description of the religious history of Tamils of Jainism, Buddhism, of Saivaism and Vaishnavism, of Islam and Christianity which one after another came and stayed. The genius of the Tamil land in religion seems to be Theism, while nature worship was the genius of the Aryan. Even in Advaitism the soul flourishes in the shadow of Sivaas in the case of Sri-kanta and Appiah Dikshita. A connected account of the evolution of Tamil Arts - Architecture Agriculture, of primitive tribes would be an appropriate addition.

Do folklore and myths enter into the culture of a race and if they do can the history of the people be complete without folklore and mythology - a world in itself? The author may investigate the characteristic modes of cradle and love songs, the relationships of men and women, which distinguish Tamils from others in the future editions.

Should the historian write of the Tamil land or Tamil people. The book purports to be the history of Tamil land Why not change it into History of Tamil people and include a chapter on their migrations and immigration, foreign travel and colonisation. Tamils were the earliest of colonisers from India and in the proud chapter of the expansion of Indian civilisation in the east, theirs has been a memorable chapter,

Vedic Culture

By Ganga Prasad Mahopadhyaya pp. 216 - foreword by Gokulchand Narang former Minister of Education, Punjab - Price Rs. 3-8-0. Available at Sarvadeshika Arya Prathinidhi Sabha.

Of late the critical scholarship in vedas, has discarded the earlier view that it represents a primitive and crude culture and has adopted a more correct view that the vedic literature reflects the peak of a fairly civilised social order, both in secular life and in spiritual outlook. The Arya Samaj to which group the author belongs, has done much in the transvaluation of vedic culture, and they have received valuable help from the Sri Aurobindo’s school. Sri Ganga Prasad Mahopadhyaya, has held many high positions in the Arya Samaj-world and has written many scholarly books. The book under review gives a broad sketch of the vedic culture both in its secular and religious aspects. Avoiding on one side heavy documentation and on the other dogmatic generalisation born of a spirit of patriotism, the author adopts the sympathetic critical attitude and gives a correct, objective picture of vedic days which by reason of their remoteness is unfamiliar both to the Hindu and the non-Hindu. Chapters on Agriculture, Cattle, Arts, Clothing, Trade, Castes and Classes and Family are informative and interesting.

These chapters, by apt quotations show that the Aryans of the vedas are a people of a high and complex civilisation. In the place given to women, in the high valuation of partnership of marriage, they are easily the superiors of the moderns. We wish the author had not wasted his time in showing that Aeroplanes are mentioned in Rigveda on the basis of texts which speak of heavenly boats. If he could get specifications as to how to build an Aeroplane from vedas or succeeds in building them, then his arguments will have stronger basis than cobwebs of words and similes. It is time we leave altogether this sort of vanity that our ancestors knew everything on earth. Fortunately except for this matter, we find an objective and critically constructive view is maintained throughout.

The readers of the ‘Pilgrim’ will find the chapter on theism or mono-theism of Rigveda, revealing. We are glad that the author has given hymns which are many, that work out the mono-theistic conception and has not been satisfied with the one stereotyped quotation - Ekamsath etc.

A readable and enlightening book which we recommended to Hindus and Christians alike. To the missionary who wants an introduction to vedic culture this book is ‘just’ it.

We acknowledge with thanks the receipt of:

1. A critique of Hinduism by Pandit Lakshmana Sastri Joshi - Theer and Co.
2. The philosophy of Bedha Bedha by Sreenivasachari P.N.

Reviews of these two books will appear in the next issue.

Our Religious Magazines

The Theosophical Movement - The policy of the paper is expressed thus - “devotion to the cause of Theosophy without professing attachment to the Theosophical organisation.”

The Theosophical Movement a sister Magazine to ‘Aryan Path’ was the earliest to come on our exchange. ‘Aryan Path’ expresses the world culture of the East and West on the background of Eastern and particularly Indian spiritual background. The Theosophical Movement is preponderantly devoted to Theosophy in its relation to Indian problems and expounds the opinion of Madam Blavatsky on the current topics and issues.

Articles of general interest are found in every issue. During the current year a sustained interest was shown on the following topics:

1. On Mysticism as expressed by a German sailor

2. On Poetry and Religion in articles entitled

   1. Theosophy of Edgar Allan Poe

   2. Theosophy of Shakespeare’s Tempest

   3. Tennyson on ecstasy

   4. Psychology and religion in articles on:

      1. Medical Hypnotism
      2. Relevance of psychical research and hypnotism
      3. Telepathy
      4. Clairvoyance.

   We draw special attention of the readers of ‘Pilgrim’ to these articles as we hold that the formulation of Christian yoga depends on a deep study of psychology. It is our considered opinion that Advaita in India should press the findings of psychology - particularly unconscious cerementation shown in Telepathy and extra-sensory experience into service to express its basic concepts than remain stuck to Avastatraya

3. Vivisection,

4. Peace,

5. Applied Theology - a challenge to all religions to apply themselves to problems of life

Articles on Hinduism appear very frequently, and we give below some of them.

1. Tibetan Teachings - Buddha and early Buddhism.
2. Equanimity and skill in action (Gita).

We have observed that our religious papers demand from the nation very little of heart-searching and very little honest self-examination. We are glad that in the article on India today and tomorrow a pointed reference is made to our national shortcomings and a question is asked “Is India of 1949 consciously hypocritical or simply too hopelessly bereft of guiding moral principles to be aware of its own sins?” - we hope other religious papers will appreciate this courageous lead and discharge the prophetic function of judgement to the nation.

Survey of Religious Literature on Hinduism 1949

Vedas

1. Vedic publications of S.D. Satawalekar of Swadhyaya Mandal - Anandashrama, Pardi, 2 P.O., Satara District,

   1. Daivata Sambita
   2. Journal of Oriental Studies - Edited by Sri N.A. Gore, M.A.

2. Vedic Word Index ÷ Viswesranand Vedic: Research Institute.

3. Rigveda Sukta by Swami Sukhanand Jotheva Chowi No. I, Tejpal Road, vide Parle (East).

4. Sathapatha Brahmana - Chandradhasa Sarma - 2 vols.

Upanishads

1. Rangaramanuja - Katopanishad Bashya - Edited by K.C. Varadachari and Tatachari.
2. Svetasvatara Upanishad - Ramakrishna Mutt Mylapore.
3. Hume’s Thirteen Upanishads.
4. The Wisdom of the Upanishads - P.N. Srinivasachar - Sri Krishna Library, Chitrakulam, North Street, Mylapore.
5. Isa, Kena, Katha Upanishads - Bashya of Vedanta Desikar.

Gita

1. Gita Published by Raghavachariar in Ubhaya Vedanta Grandha Mala Series - Sanskrit College, Triplicane.
2. Srimad Bhagavad Gita - Text and Translation and Gloss of Sridharaswami - Swami Visveswarananda, Ramakrishna Mutt, Mylapore, Madras (Reviewed in Aryan Path, pp. 379, 427).
3. Srimad Bhagavad Gita Part I - Chapters I to 3, by Pandit Srimad Damodar, Satwalker - Swadhyaya Mandal, Pardi, Satara District, (Reviewed by the Editor in September 1949 in the Pilgrim.)
4. A Laymen’s Bhagavad Gita - Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian. Text and Translation of 6 Chapters by Justice A.S.P. Iyer, M.A., I.C.S., Vol. I. Madras Law Journal Office, Mylapore.
5. The Bhagavad Gita by Sir Radhakrishnan, George Allan and Unwin, London, (Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian).
6. Actuality Avatar - by Brahmachari Gitananda - B.G. Paul and Co., Madras. (Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian and Swatantra).
7. Buddhi Yoga - Text - Translation - Commentary by M. Ramachandra - Gitashram, Bangalore City.
8. Essential Teachings and Sadhanas of the Gitad Venkatanarayana Naidu.
9. The Secret Doctrine of Bhagavad Gita - by G. Ramakanta Acharya - Bapatla, Guntur.
10. Discourses on the Philosophy of Gita by the late Sri Mangal. Charan, B.L., Searchlight Press, Patna, (Reviewed in June, - Pilgrim).
11. The Ethical Philosophy of Gita - by P.N. Srinivasa Chari
12. Bhagavad Gita Chapters I to 3 by V. Krishna Sarma, 140, Malaikottai North Street, Tiruchirappalli, Rs. 1-4-0.

Vedanta

1. Aspects of Vedanta by: P.N. Srinivasachari, Madras, (Reviewed in Guardian and Pilgrim by the Editor - September.)
2. Vedanta for the Western World, Edited by Christopher Isherwood. George Allan and Unwin, London (Reviewed in Aryan Path, p. 282).
3. Drg.- Drisyaviveka English Translation and Notes by Swami Nikhilananda - Ramakrishna Ashram - Vani Vilas Mohilla, Mysore.
4. Sri Sankara Bhagavatpada by Prof. P. Sankara Narayanan - Kuppuswami Sastry Research Institute, Mylapore, Madras.
5. Compromises in the History of Adwaitic Thought by Prof. Kuppuswami Sastry (Reviewed, March 1950 - Pilgrim)
6. The Vedanta of Sankara - A Metaphysic of Value. Vol. I - Rama Pratap Singh - Bharat Publishing House, Jaipur, (Reviewed in Hindu dated 5-2-1950.)

Nyaya

1. Nyayavatara Vartika Vriti by Santi Suri. Edited by Pandit Malavaniya (Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, Reviewed in Aryan Path, p. 428).
2. Indian Realism - Studies in Nyaya - Vaishesika Metaphysics by Sadananda Bhaduri, M.A., Ph.D., - Bhandarkar Oriental Institute, Poona-4.
3. Testament of Theism - Nyaya Kusunanjali of Udayanacharya, Translated by Udayacharya.

Mimamsa

1. Mimamsa Paribhasha by Krishna Yagvi Madhavananda - Ramakrishna Mission, Bellur.

Grammar and Logic

1. Gadadhara Bhattacharyas, Vyutpattiwada with Vivarana, Published by Subramania Sastry - Annamalai University, Annamalainagar.
2. Technical, Terms and Technique of Sanskrit Grammar - K.C. Chatterji, Part I (Reviewed in Hindu - dated 11-2-1950).

Saivism and Dravidianism

1. Tholkappiam - A Translation by, P., S. Subramania Sastry - Two Volumes - Kuppuswami Sastry Research Institute of Mylapore.
2. Tholkappiam - Porul Athikaram. (Reviewed in June - Pilgrim).
3. Sivagnanabodam by Gordon Mathew, (Reviewed in December 1949 - Pilgrim).
4. Sivagnanabotham in: Tamil and English - Dharmapuram Athinam.
5. Sivagnana Siddhiyar - Translation of Sivarama Iyer - Tiruppanandal Kashi Mutt Publication.
6. Saivism - An Introduction to Saiva Siddhantha by G. Subramania Pillai, Annamalai University.
7. Kashmir Saivism - by K. Guru Dutt - The Indian Institute of Culture - Basavangudi, Bangalore.
8. India’s Legacy to the World Heritage - Dravidiant Part I by Rao Sahib: Ranganatha Punja - Base, Mission Book Depot, Mangalore.

Vaishnavism

1. Philosophy of Vishishtadvaita - P.N. Sreenivasachari Theosophical Publishing House, Adayar:
2. Yatindra Mata Deepika by Sreenivasadasa translated by Adi Devanandan - Ramakrishna Mutt, Mylapore, Madras. (Reviewed in March 1950 - Pilgrim).
3. Sri Ramanuja’s Theory of knowledge by Dr. K.C. Varadachari, Sri Venkatesa, Tirupathi Institute, Tirupati

Madhvaish

1. Vadavali of Jayathirtha - Translated by P. Nagarajarao, Theosophical Publishing House, Adayar.
2. A History of Indian Philosophy by Das Gupta Vol. IV Treats Extensively of Madhwa and his philosophy.

Lingayatism

1. The Lingayat Movement - S. Hanusal - Karnatik Sahitya Mandal, Darwar:
2. Veerasaiva Philosophy and Mysticism by Kumaraswami - Navakalyana Mutt, Darwar.

Hinduism (General)

1. A CRITIQUE of Hinduism by Pandit Lakshmana Sastri Joshi Modern age: Publication - Navasar Chambers - Outram Road, Fort, Bombay.
2. Studies in Hinduism by Father Zachariahs - Alwaye (Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian, December - Pilgrim).
3. Hinduism by Bouquet - Messrs. Hutchinson and Co.
4. Religion of Tagore by Rev. Eastburn (Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian - 2-3-50).
5. Sanatana Vaidika Dharma by Bagavandas, Indian Book Shop, Benares.
6. Pearls of Wisdom - Parts I and II by M.R. Appadurai.

Buddhism

1. A new light on Buddha’s First Sermon by Dr. Mohan Singh - Academy of Spiritual Culture, 9, Jaipur Road, Dehradun.

Jainism

1. Lord Mahavira by Bhoolchand - Reviewed by Editor in the Guardian.
2. Jania Sutras - Dr. B.C. Law - Bombay Branch Royal Society.

Philosophy

1. Das Gupta - History of Indian Philosophy - Vol. 4.
2. Essentials of Hindu Philosophy. Prof. Hirayanna (Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian).
3. Nature of Self by A.C. Mukherji, Indian Press Ltd. Allahabad

Epics

1. Tulsidas Ramayana - Kalyan Kalpataru Originally and Translation.
2. Ramayana - Rt. Hon. V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, Central Art Press, G. T. Madras.
3. Studies in Ramayana - K.S. Ramaswami, Sastri, Oriental Institute, Baroda.

Saints

1. Tukaram by V.R. Aggoankar, translated by R.V. Matkari - V. Prabha and Co., Girgaum, Bombay. (Reviewed by the Editor in the Guardian)

Christ and Hinduism

1. Hindu view of Christ by Swami Akhilananda - Philosophical Library, New York. (Reviewed by the Editor in the Hindu and Vedanta Kesari).

Samapada Chaturanga

In modern days theology unlike Vedas, cannot continue to exist without being printed. As the days of oral transmission are gone for good, the theologian has to write his theology in a book, whether he could find readers or not. Once having made up his mind to give his theology to the world his main concern will be with the form and contents of the book. We deal with this in this issue. We have given the Sanskrit terms for Theology and Religion already.

The author may be modest and write a primer (Pradhama pustaka) or ambitious and write a treatise ‘prabhanda or tantra.’ His may be lessons Siksha or Patah or exposition ‘Vivruti’ or ‘Vivarna’ or ‘Bodhini’ or a reader ‘Vachakam.’ He may establish by proofs his own views (Nirnaya) refute those who oppose him (Khandana or Dikharana). His may be polemics (Tarkar, Vada, Charcha, Bhanga), or Apologetics (Raksha or Dharma Saa, Samrakshana) or maintaining doctrines or positions (Samardhana or Stapana). The book may be for beginners (Bala) or for advance students (Proudha) or intermediate (Madhyama); may be a text book ‘Vachaka’. It may be in volumes (Samputa).

Of course, it will begin with contents (Vishaya suchlike) then proceed to introduction, (Pravesika) or preface, prologue (Bhumika, Mukhabandhana, Upotghatha, Prasthavanapitika) or foreword. (Abhasha). He may divide his book into parts (Bhaga or Khanda) and then into chapters (Adhyasa, Prakarana, Avatara). He may give the substance of his chapter at the close (Tatparya). It may be a systematic statement of doctrine - Siddhanta, or argumentative - purva and uttara paksha; vada; ukti; katha enquiry - vichara or dogmatic - pramanika or adhiarika. He may institute search - Vimarsika or Historical - Charitrika. The divisions in the book on Christian Theology are likely to be:

1. Theology - Brahmajnanam
2. Christology - Christu Avatara thathva or sudarsana thathva (Theology of Logos)
3. Ethics-Dharma
4. Cosmology - sarga or shrushti jnanam, or
5. Eschatology - prati - sarga or kalpantara jnanam or Antyasiddhanta.

The book may close with an epilogue or retrospect - punaralochana or review - samalochana punar-dhristi or simhavalokana or survey - avalokana. Index will be Akaradi appendix anubandham; dedication - samarpana or christarpana.

We need Sanskrit equivalents for:

1. Handbook or manual.
2. Elementary textbook bringing out the notion of elements.
3. Our lines - requires word from painter’s vocabulary
4. Sketch - requires word from painter’s vocabulary
5. Synopsis.

(All Rights Reserved)

P. CHENCHIAH.

What the Reader’s Say

These opinions are published not as ‘chits’ to the paper or to the Editor but to show that both Christians and Non-Christians feel that ‘the Pilgrim’ is serving a good purpose, and that Non-Christians feel that the exposition of their faith is just and sympathetic.

1. Rev. CANON BARAKAT ULLAH In his letter dated 3-2-1050, I think the Pilgrim is now a very fine magazine and I trust in the new India which is now predominantly Hindu it will help Christians to understand Hinduism and Hindus, to know Christ the Saviour!

2. THE THEOSOPHICAL MOVEMENT NOVEMBER 1949, p. I9. The “deeply sympathetic and understanding approach” of this little Quarterly Journal of the Christian Society for the study of Hinduism, which must gratify every sincere student of Theosophy as highly as it does Shri Rajagopalachari, will not surprise those who remember the thoughtful series of articles, “A New Critique of Theism” which its Ediyot, Shri P. Chenchiah, Retired Chief Judge of Pudukottah State, contributed to The Aryan Path in 1946.

Articles

Sri Sankara’s Adwaitam

BY V.S. Narasimhachar, Advocate.

It is proposed in this article to give a brief outline of Adwaitism, as expounded by Sri Sankaracharya and the sources of knowledge on which it is based.

The cardinal tenets of the philosophy of Advaita of Sri Sankara can be summed up in the following sentences:

    Brahma satyam, jaganmitya
    Jeevo Brahmaiva naparaha
    Jaga-jeevan kalpitham Bhudhe
    Radhyasenaiva Mayaya
    Mukti radvaitanubhuti schya
    Atma Bodhamcha Sadanam
    Akshadi thrithyam pramanahah
    Brahma Vedaikavedhyam kila

[“Brahma is real. The world is unreal. The soul is Brahman only not different. The world and jiva are illusions of Budhi by virtue of superimposition and mukti is experience of non-difference and self-knowledge is the means thereof. Perception and others are the three sources of knowledge or measures of proof and Brahman is knowable only through Vedas.”]

So the main tenets are:

1. Brahman is the only Reality.
2. Soul is Brahman only.
3. The World is unreal.
4. By virtue of Maya and Adhyasa (superimposition) the world and the ego appear to be real.
5. Mukti or Release is the experience of non-difference between the soul and Brahma.
6. Self-knowledge is the means of getting release.
7. Brahman is to be known only by study of the Vedas.

He establishes the above tenets by the said three sources of knowledge or Pramanas as they are called, viz.,

1. Pratyaksha or perception.
2. Anumana or inference.
3. Shruti or the revealed word.

Vedas are “Apourusheya” and are ‘Swatah Pramana.’ That sruti is self-valid as pramana is a postulate of all the schools of Vedanta. It is supreme pramana in spiritual or transcendental matters. According to this school, distinction is made between the ‘Karmakanda’ including samhitas and Brahmanas, and ‘Gnanakanda’ or Upanishads, in estimating their value as pramanas, since according to this school, the word “Vedanta” means the “Anta” or the end or last portion of the vedas. According to this school vedanta includes the Upanishads (or Gnanakanda of the Vedas), Brahma sutras and the Bhagavadgita (prasthanatraya, the three sacred canons as they are called) and commentaries elucidating them. Karmakanda of the vedas which deals with rituals, and sacrifices being concerned with “Abhyudaya” (material happiness here and hereafter) and not the highest good “Nisreyas” is not part of Vedanta.

Anumana or reasoning as pramana is useful where contradictory statements of sruti occur and also for corroboration of vedantic texts. By reasoning a reconciliation of the contradiction should be effected. Since any matter may be proved or disproved by ratiocination by itself, its conclusions unless supported by sruti are of little probative value in spiritual field.

Perception has its supreme validity only in knowledge through the senses. There a hundred texts cannot, prevail against it. But it cannot be of any avail in transcendental matters.

Brahman Is the Only Reality and Is Knowable Only by Sruti

Agama or Shruti is the only sources of knowledge of Brahman. It cannot be known by prathyaksha or Anumana. Brahma sutras say that the source of knowledge of Brahman is scriptures and as the Kathopanishad Valli 2, sloka 15, says “All the Vedas speak only of Him”. Kathopanishad v 2:8 says Brahman is “Atarkam” (not capable of being argued), Tait Brahmana 3: 12:I9: says:

    "One who is ignorant of the scriptures cannot know
    that Brahman." Sri Krishna says in Bhagavadgita. "I am
    indeed he who is to be known by all the vedas."

Sankara relying on the above and other authorities says that they show that Brahman is not to be known by mere Reasoning but only through the scriptures, because it is main purport of all the vedanta texts. He says in his Vivekachudamani about Brahman in sloka 409 “beyond the range of proofs and established by the pronouncements of the Vedas.”

The purport of all the texts in the sruti, is, according to Sankara that Brahman is without attributes. He quotes passages from Upanishads some of which are given below:

    It is neither gross nor minute, neither short nor
    long

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.8.8

    Soundless, touchless, formless, Imperishable

— Katha Upanishad 3.15

    Self resplendent, formless,
    unoriginated, that all-pervading Being is both within
    and without and without the vital force and without mind,
    pure, transcends even the transcendent, manifested cause.
    State of the Universe

— Mundaka Upanishad 2.1.2

    It is different from what is known, and
    it is beyond what is unknown

— Kena Upanishad 1-3

    From which the speech with manas recoils not having
    attained

— Taittiriya Upanishad 2.4.1

    He is not apprehended by the eye nor speech nor by
    other senses, nor by rituals nor penances

— Mundaka Upanishad 3.1.9

    Who is artless, free from actions, tranquil faultless, taintless

— Svetasvatara Upanishad 6.19

    He is said to be unmanifested,
    unthinkable and unchanging

— Bhagavad Gita 2.25

Now therefore the description of Brahman “Not this, not this” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.6)

Sankara says that if Brahman had attributes, sruti would have described it in positive terms instead of in negative terms like “Not this” and that sruti teaches about Brahman by denying all characteristics.

The Brahman is one without a second “Brahman is one only without a second”, “That is the Truth”. “All this is Brahman alone.” (Chandogya Upanishad 7.25.1)

    There is nothing higher than or different from Him

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.5.19

    He is all-pervasive, unchanging and immovable

— Bhagavad Gita 2.24

Brahman is of the essence of existence, Intelligence and Bliss. “Satyam, Gnanam, and Anantam” (Taittiriya Upanishad 2.1.1) “Existence alone can be predicated of it.”. It can be known only as “It is”.

Sankara sings about Brahman in his Viveka Chudamani thus:

    Whatever there manifests viz., this Universe is the
    supreme Brahman itself, the Real, the one without a second,
    pure, the essence of knowledge, the taintless, pacified,
    devoid of beginning and end, beyond activity, the essence of
    Bliss, Absolute, Transcending all the diversities created by
    maya or nescience, eternal, over beyond the reach of pain,
    indivisible, immeasurable, formless, undifferentiated, nameless,
    immutable, self-luminous.

According to Sankara Brahman is both the material and efficient cause of the Universe. He deduces this from the following texts.

    That from which these things are produced, by which,
    when produced they live and into which they enter at their
    dissolution - try to know that is Brahman.

— Taittiriya Upanishad 3.1

    One only without a second

— Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1

Therefore, since no other thing except Brahman exists and that is declared to be the cause of the universe Brahman must be both material and efficient cause of the Universe.

He relies on texts like “All these things spring from Brahman and return to Brahman” (Ch. Up 1-9-2) and says that those texts show that Brahman is the material cause because a thing may be said to be produced from its efficient cause but, it cannot return to that at dissolution unless it is the material cause.

If Brahman is also material cause of the Universe then since there is only “one without second” it must be modification of Brahman. But no such modification can be attributed to Brahman since Shruti says Brahman is without change or without parts. Sankara says that since sruti supports both the contradictory views, and it is the only authority in transcendental matters, both the opposite views have to be accepted but must be reconciled by the use of reason. So he draws the conclusion that the change in Brahman is only apparent and not real so that Brahman is unaffected thereby. This apparent change or vivaria is accomplished by maya or nescience, one of the powers of Brahman which according to sruti possesses all powers. As to how Brahman who is said to be devoid of organs can create, Sri Sankara replies that with respect to Brahman scripture alone is authority, and it declares that Brahman though without organs possess all powers.

Sankara admits that there are sruti texts speaking about saguna Brahman or personal God or Brahman with attributes. But he says that all the texts of the sruti that aim at teaching Brahman describe it as attributeless. If it is taken to have attributes then those texts become purposeless a contingency which cannot be imagined for the sruti throughout has a purport. The texts dealing with qualified Brahman do not seek to establish it but rather to enjoin meditation on Brahman. Since it is not possible for the ordinary man to grasp the Infinite, scriptures present various symbols or forms for mediation. These modes of approach to Brahman are called ‘Vidyas’, or Upasanas and according to Sankara the texts dealing With Saguna Brahman are intended only for the purpose of those Vidyas or Upasanas. According to a purna nimansa rule of interpretation that which has no result of its own but is mentioned in connection with something else which has a result, is subordinated to the latter.

The World Is Unreal Creation of Maya and Adhyasa

According to sruti there is nothing else existing but Brahman and that is one without a second. So the world is Brahman. Again senses perceive the world of manifoldness and this knowledge of the world is supported by pratakshya.

Pramana is supreme in the province of knowledge through the senses. Since both the sources of knowledge are valid in the case, the world must be a modification of Brahman - one into many. But Brahman is changeless according to sruti. Therefore, the modification must be such as not to cause any change in the Brahman. It must therefore be a mere apparent modification or Vivarta an illusion.

This apparent modification or Vivarta is brought about by Maya. According to Sankara, Maya is the power of the Lord, beginningless and made up of three Gunas, to be inferred only from the effects it produces. It is neither being nor non-being nor both. It cannot be described, it is “anirvachaniya.”

It can be inferred only by its effects: - the material Universe which it produces. It is beginningless but it has an end. Maya and its effect - the Universe - disappear as soon as one attains the knowledge of Brahman. Maya and Brahman cannot co-exist.

Maya cannot be described as being or non-being. If it were being then its effects on the tangible Universe would be perceived at all times as a reality. But as a matter of fact the Universe is not beheld in Samadhi. If Maya were non-being, a non-existent thing like the son of a barren woman, the Universe cannot be seen.

(To be continued)

Notice

Accommodation for Visitors to Benares

1. The “Khristpanthi Ashram” receives throughout the year visitors especially those interested in Christian activities and the study of Hinduism. Entertainment charge Rs. 3 to Rs. 5. daily.

2. Workers, converts or enquirers sent by Churches or Missions are also accepted on agreed terms for instruction in the Bible, help in spiritual life and experience in practical evangelism and personal work.

R.C. DAS, 129, Dashashwamedh, Benares.

An Institute of Hinduism in Benares

(Oct 15th to Nov. 15th (inclusive) 1950.)

A. Teachers

1. Dr. R.D. Immanuel of Leonard Theological College, Jabalpur,
2. Rev. Paul Ramaswamy B.A., Presbyterian Church of South India,
3. Rev. R.C. Das, M.A. (Convener of Institutes and Secretary of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism.) - Khristpanthi Ashram, Benares

B. Courses

1. Dr. Immanuel expects to give six lectures on some aspect of Hinduism.
2. Mr. Ramaswamy will speak on the Thirukural by Tiruvalluvar.
3. Mr. Das will take up aspects of Popular Hinduism and Christian approach

C. Local Scholars will lecture on special topics.

D. Excursions to cultural and religious centres will be undertaken.

E. Fees Rs. 5 for every Rs. 100 of income or part thereof Hospitality - Rs. 2-8-0 daily for students. Rs. 3-8-0 daily for others.

Local conveyance to be met collectively. Register early.

R.C. DAS, 129, Dashashwamedh, Benares

Fenn Thompson and Co., Vepery, Madras.

The Editorial Committee

1. Rt. Rev. Bishop A. J: Appasamy - Coimbatore
2. Rev. C.G. Diehl - Madura
3. Rev. R.C. Das, M.A., - Benares

Indian Christian Book Club to Be Revived

MR. S.P. ADINARAYAN, M.A. (London), Professor of philosophy, Christian College, Tambaram writes: -

The Indian Christian Book Club was started in 1938 with the object of canalising the intellectual energy of the Christian community along lines of independent thinking and research in religious, social and cultural problems. The first book published by the Club “Rethinking Christianity in India” was an instantaneous success and received widespread attention both in this country and abroad. Three other volumes were published before wartime conditions made it impossible for the Club to function. It is now felt that the time is ripe for reviving the Club and that among other things it will serve as a means of the Indian Christian making an effective contribution to the life of the Republic. Mr. P. Chenchiah, whose pioneering work in coordinating Christian thought, and Indian culture is well known, will be actively associated in the reviving of the Club, for the starting of which at least five hundred members are needed. Will all those who like to join please write to Prof. S.P. Adinarayan, Editor, Indian Christian Book Club, Madras Christian College, Tambaram?

Apology.

The article on Catholic Theology printed in the June issue of the Pilgrim is from the pen of Father Fallon S.J. We apologise for the omission of the name through inadvertence.

Objects and Aims

The objects of the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism are:

1. To create and maintain adequate, interest in the study of Hinduism by Christians,
2. To carry on the study in a sympathetic, constructive and critical way for the purpose of effective evangelism and
3. To achieve the above objects in co-operation with Church and Mission bodies.

The activities of the Society are:

1. An Institute of Hinduism in Benares,
2. ‘The Pilgrim’, a quarterly bulletin, bearing on Hinduism, its relation to Christianity and work among Hindus and
3. Organising a permanent School of Hinduism.

Every member will receive THE PILGRIM free. Membership fee Rs. 4 per year.

NOTE

1. Subscription for membership to the Christian Society for the Study of Hinduism is Rs. 4 per annum.
2. Subscriptions and Donations should be sent to the treasurer: Rev. A.D. HUNT, 87, Cantonments, Benares.
3. Enquiries about the Society and its work should be addressed to the Secretary: Rev. R.C. DAS, 129, Dashashwamedh, Benares.

THE PILGRIM is sent free to members of the Society. Complaints as to non-receipt, corrections or changes of address and communications about the paper and literary contributions and applications to the membership of the Society should be sent to:

P. Chenchiah, M.L.
Advocate,
Editor ‘The Pilgrim’,
28 Halls Road,
Egmore, Madras